Parkesia noveboracensis

Dark brown above, whitish to pale yellowish below and supercilium. Dark streaking on breast. Best distinguished from very similar Louisiana Waterthrush by thinner, more yellowish supercilium and typically spotted throat, drabber leg color. Habitat should be considered when identifying waterthrushes. Song is best indicator of species.

BREEDING: Breeds in cool, wooded swamps, ponds and slow-moving rivers; thickets of bogs, and rivers bordered with willow (SALIX) and alder (ALNUS, Godfrey 1986, Peck and James 1987). Regional habitats differ slightly. Throughout Canada and Alaska, nests primarily in spruce (PICEA) bogs, along alder-and willow-bordered rivers; also along lakes, swamps, and wet woodlands (Godfrey 1986). However, on islands off Newfoundland, known to nest in areas without standing water and where understory is less dense than on mainland (Vassollo et al.1982).

In New York state, breeds in hardwood swamps dominated by Red Maple (ACER RUBRUM) on the Great Lakes Plain, in Eastern Hemlock (TSUGA CANADENSIS)-northern hardwood swamps on the Allegheny Plateau, and in spruce-tamarack (LARIX)-balsam (ABIES) swamp valleys and uplands of the Adirondacks and Tug Hill Plateau (Eaton 1988). In Pennsylvania, found in RHODODENDRON swamps and a variety of wooded wetland types (Gross 1992). In Massachusetts, nests in locally in red maple swamps and white cedar and red maple swamps (Viet and Petersen 1993). In West Virginia, nests along rhododendron-bordered mountain streams, in spruce swamps and northern mixed forest to beech (FAGUS)-maple (ACER) forest (Brooks 1944).

Where sympatric with Louisiana Waterthrush, nests in areas with more forbs and ferns, with significantly more moss cover, hummocks, and conifers and with a higher density of shrubs; significantly more Eastern Hemlock and alder in Northern Waterthrush territories (Craig 1985).

NONBREEDING: Found mainly in damp tropical lowland forest, edges of pools and streams, mainly below 1,500 m. Mangroves (RHIZOPHORA, AVICENNIA, LABUNCULARIA) provide key habitat throughout much of range (Stotz et al. 1996, Bond 1971, Wetmore et al. 1984, Binford 1989, Lefebvre et al. 1992, Wunderle and Waide 1993). In Costa Rica, also found in open second growth or at wet spots in trails or roads (Stiles and Skutch 1989 Blake and Loiselle 1992). In northeast Nicaragua, in rain forest adjacent to pine habitat (Howell 1971). Tends to avoid disturbance, but may do well in second-growth tropical forest, edges, or woodlots (Ehrlich, et al. 1988).

Throughout its winter range found mainly below 1500 m (Curson et al. 1994). Highest recorded elevation in Columbia 3000m (Hilty and Brown 1986). In Costa Rica, ranges from lowlands to 1500 m, rarely higher, on both slopes, often extremely abundant in September along Caribbean coast; most numerous in Caribbean lowland and mangroves along the Pacific coast (Stiles and Skutch 1989). In Belize, most numerous in mangroves and gallery forest (Eaton 1995); occurs sparingly in cropland of cacao, rice, and citrus fruits (Robbins et al. 1992). In the West Indies, most often near the border of standing water, primarily saline and brackish, in or near mangroves and coastal scrub forest (Raffaele et al. 1998).

MIGRATION: Prefers damp woodlands with standing water, thick cover along streams, in marshes, and by stagnant pools, but is also found on lawns and in hedgerows and thickets (Winkler et al. 1992).

Territorial throughout the year. Thought to defend non-breeding foraging areas against intraspecific intrusion, occasionally violently. Mean territory size on breeding grounds from 0.5-1.0 ha by location and is similar on wintering grounds (Eaton 1995, Curson et al. 1994). Some indication that individuals may show changing preferences for habitat throughout non-breeding season despite other studies showing strong winter territoriality. Lefebvre et al. (1994) considered this species to be non-territorial in winter in northeastern Venezuela mangroves. Arrivals in Venezuela near end of rainy season occupy higher slopes, descending to humid lowlands in the dry season (Schwartz 1964). In northern Colombia, inhabits thornscrub in October but disappears in November as leaves wilt; unrecorded there in spring (Russell 1980). In addition, birds occupying coastal mangroves in Panama may migrate between habitat types mid-winter in response to prey availability. Abundance of Panamanian birds followed patterns of arthropod abundance and increased rainfall; species was more abundant in Pacific mangrove forests during the first part of the wintering period and more abundant in the Caribbean mangroves during the second part of the wintering season when rainfall and arthropod prey items increase there (Lefebvre and Poulin 1996).

Essentially monogamous. Pair bond maintained from shortly after male arrives to 3-4 days after successful fledging. Favors nest sites in cavities of root systems of wind-blown trees in wooded swamps, or on sides of fern clumps or under cover on the banks of lakes or rivers. Nest typically hidden from above (Eaton 1995, Baicich and Harrison 1997). Nest a bowl of moss and liverwort gametophytes with a few leaves on the outside, lined with grass stems, twigs or pine needles, moss sporophytes or small rootlets and hair. May have an entranceway of leaves (Eaton 1995, Baicich and Harrison 1997).

Clutch size four to five eggs, sometimes three to six. Distinctly smaller than cowbird eggs. Female incubates and will lure potential predators away from nest. (Eaton 1995). Eggs are laid in late May-June. Young are altricial, brooded by female until day five. Both parents feed young. Departure from nest at day nine. Young unable to fly and hide for 2-3 days under dense vegetation (Baicich and Harrison 1997). Parents split brood for feeding. One brood per season (Eaton 1995).