Setophaga americana

ADULT MALE: Head and upperparts mostly grayish blue; patch on center of back greenish yellow; wings and tail grayish blue, the wings showing two prominent white bars and the tail having white spots on the outer feathers near its end; throat and breast mostly yellow, the breast crossed by a band of bluish black bordered with chestnut; belly white; flanks slightly washed with rufous. ADULT FEMALE: Similar, but patch on back duller and underparts light yellow with breast band generally lacking.

BREEDING: Breeding habitat varies considerably throughout range, but primarily a riparian species associated with epiphytic growth. Found in open deciduous, coniferous, or mixed forest, woodland, floodplain and swamp forest. Prefers mature forest but also occurs in young deciduous woods (Bushman and Therres 1988). Favors woods with a very dense understory of saplings and shrubs near slow or non-flowing water; canopy may range from poorly developed to mainly closed (see Bushman and Therres 1988).

Southern populations occupy the canopy or subcanopy of riparian bottomland forest, especially where Spanish moss (TILLANDSIA) is found.. In eastern Texas, prefers floodplain hardwood forest dominated by water oak (QUERCUS NIGRA), willow oak (Q. PHELLOS), swamp chestnut oak (Q. MICHAUXII), and black gum (NYSSA SYLVANTICA) with an understory of dwarf palmetto (SABAL MINOR). Found less abundantly in mixed pine-hardwood forests. In the coastal plain of Georgia, breeds in mature hardwood bottomlands with Spanish moss, but in northern Georgia where Spanish moss is absent, breeds in moist wooded ravines of eastern hemlock (TSUGA CANADENSIS, Moldenhauer and Regelski 1996).

In northern part of range, prefers tall, mature, coniferous forest with spruce (PICEA), hemlock (TSUGA), true fir (ABIES), White Cedar, and Tamarack in moist bogs and swamps where Old Man's Beard lichen (USNEA spp.) or lace lichen (RAMALINA RETICULATA) is abundant. In Nova Scotia, found in stands of Sugar Maple (ACER SACCHARUM), Red Maple (A. RUBRUM), Paper Birch (BETULA PAPYRIFERA), and Yellow Birch (B. ALLEGHANIENSIS) and most abundantly in 40-yr-old stands of trees. Less abundant in both older and younger stands (Morgan and Freedman 1986). Density positively correlated with tree density, basal area, percent canopy cover, and canopy height (Morgan 1984). In northern-central Minnesota, inhabits primarily mature undisturbed mixed forest of predominantly deciduous trees with moderate ground and shrub cover and greater than 75 per cent canopy cover (Collins et al. 1982). In Illinois, numbers positively correlated with the presence of sycamore (PLATANUS OCCIDENTALIS, Graber et al. 1983). Appalachian populations favor wet ravines dominated by hemlocks. Found at edges of spruce forests, spruce-covered islands off the Maine coast (Dunn and Garrett 1997).

NON-BREEDING: A habitat generalist in winter. Occurs in nearly equal frequencies in most common habitat types available. Tropical lowland evergreen forest, pine-oak forest, gallery forest, and secondary forest up to a maximum elevation of 1500 m (Stotz et al. 1996). In scrub and brushy areas (AOU 1998), woodland edge, and mangroves but also arboreal agriculture, sun coffee, citrus plantations, croplands (Arendt et al. 1992, Robbins et al. 1992) and tall second growth, usually from middle heights to high in the canopy (Lynch et al. 1985). Has exhibited sexual segregation in Quintana Roo, Yucatan, Mexico with more males in taller forest and more females in scrub habitats (Morton et al. 1987)

In Mexico occupies humid to semiarid forest and edge, plantations, and mangroves. Found singly at mid- to upper-levels (Howell and Webb 1995). In Costa Rica found at woodland edges, in semi-open and tall second growth, usually from middle amid foliage to high in canopy (Stiles and Skutch 1989). In Cuba, occupies forest, where it usually forages in higher branches (Garrido and Kirkconnell 2000). In Jamaica, most common in damper woods; trees with broad, thin leaves (Lack 1976).

MIGRATION: Uses all kinds of wooded areas on migration including humid lowland forest, second growth, scrub and brushy areas (AOU 1998), but shows a preference for deciduous woods; occasionally found in overgrown fields and hedgerows. (Dunn and Garrett 1997).

BREEDING: Relatively nonsocial on breeding grounds. Males arrive early to establish territories and defend them with singing and chasing. Potential competitors affect territory size and density. Territories in mainland spruce forests of Maine were 0.4 hectares, but on offshore islands were only 0.16 hectares in size (Moldenhauer and Regelski 1996).

NON-BREEDING: Social behavior is quite variable during the non-breeding season sometimes showing site-fidelity with restricted home ranges (Ewert and Askins 1991). Forms mixed flocks or "temporary social aggregations" with other paruline species and residents (Post 1978, Stacier 1992, Stiles and Skutch 1989). Found singly, but most often associated with a mixed flock; a "nucleus species" (Eaton 1953). In southwestern Puerto Rico, ranged from territorial to gregarious to wandering (Hagan and Johnston 1992). Breeding and winter-site fidelity is suggested by banding results (Stacier 1992).

Nest built in hanging bunches of mosses or lichens (Spanish moss, beard moss or lace lichen), usually at the end of the branch, 2 to 30 m from the ground. Usually near water (Baicich and Harrison 1997, Moldenhauer and Regelski 1996). Inside of nest lined with moss or lichen fibers, hair, fine grass, pine needles or plant down (Bent 1953). A hole leading through the moss is usually located at the level of the nest bowl. Occasionally two holes are used. Where epiphytes are absent, other materials are used (Petrides 1942, Hall 1983).

Eggs white to creamy white and speckled. Clutch size usually 3-5 eggs, range 2-7. One egg laid per day. Incubation period 12-14. Incubation 12-14 days, by female. Young tended by both parents. Brooding usually by female. Young fed mainly by female (Baicich and Harrison 1997, Moldenhauer and Regelski 1996).Young leave nest 10-11 days after hatching (Graber and Graber 1951, Moldenhauer and Regelski 1996) but are unable to fly. After fledging they remain near their parents, begging constantly. Female continues to do most of the feeding, while male sings. Time to independence from parents unknown (Baicich and Harrison 1997, Moldenhauer and Regelski 1996). Single brooded, but second broods reported (Potter et al. 1980).