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Terrapene carolina

(Linnaeus, 1758)

American Box Turtle

G5Secure Found in 127 roadless areas NatureServe Explorer →
G5SecureGlobal Rank
VulnerableIUCN
MediumThreat Impact
American Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina). Photo by Richard Coldiron, CC BY-NC 4.0, via iNaturalist.
Richard Coldiron, CC BY-NC 4.0
American Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina). Photo by Nicholas Lynch, CC BY-NC 4.0, via iNaturalist.
Nicholas Lynch, CC BY-NC 4.0
American Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina). Photo by Michael Ellis, CC BY 4.0, via iNaturalist.
Michael Ellis, CC BY 4.0
American Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina). Photo by Richard Coldiron, CC BY-NC 4.0, via iNaturalist.
Richard Coldiron, CC BY-NC 4.0
American Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina). Photo by Mark McKnight, CC BY-NC 4.0, via iNaturalist.
Mark McKnight, CC BY-NC 4.0
Identity
Unique IDELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.100312
Element CodeARAAD08010
Record TypeSPECIES
ClassificationSpecies
Classification StatusStandard
Name CategoryVertebrate Animal
IUCNVulnerable
CITESAppendix II
Endemicoccurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumCraniata
ClassChelonia
OrderTestudines
FamilyEmydidae
GenusTerrapene
Other Common Names
eastern box turtle (EN) Tortue boîte (FR) Tortue boîte de l'Est (FR) Tortue tabatière (FR)
Concept Reference
King, F. W., and R. L. Burke, editors. 1989. Crocodilian, tuatara, and turtle species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Association of Systematics Collections, Washington, D.C. 216 pp.
Taxonomic Comments
Six living subspecies have previously been recognized (bauri, carolina, mexicana, major, triunguis, and yucatana) (Ernst and McBreen 1991). Turtle Taxonomy Working Group (2021) recognizes three subspecies: T. c. carolina, T. c. bauri (or T. bauri), and T. c. major. Following Butler et al. (2011), Crother (2012, 2017) elevated bauri to full species status and recognize two subspecies: T. c. carolina and T. c. triunguis. Martin et al. (2012) concluded that triunguis is paraphyletic with T. carolina and T. ornata and therefore should be a full species (as mexicana), with triunguis, mexicana, and yucatana as subspecies within it. However, Fritz and Havaš (2014) argued against the recognition of mexicana as a separate species because of demonstrated genetic introgression between triunguis and carolina. Martin et al. (2014) reaffirmed their support for recognizing mexicana and carolina as separate species. Some authors (e.g., Guyer et al. 2015, and Powell et al. 2016) have recognized triunguis as a separate species without discussion of all the taxa in this complex. Pending more complete genetic and geographic sampling of this complex, Crother (2017) retain triunguis as a subspecies of carolina. Turtle Taxonomy Working Group (2021), while including T. c. triunguis and T. m. triunguis as alternative arrangements, have tentatively recognized T. triunguis as a separate species, rather than as a subspecies of either carolina or mexicana.
Conservation Status
Rank MethodExpertise without calculation
Review Date2016-02-02
Change Date2001-09-26
Edition Date2014-02-05
Edition AuthorsJackson, D. R. (2014); Hammerson, G. (2005)
Threat ImpactMedium
Range Extent200,000-2,500,000 square km (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)
Number of Occurrences> 300
Rank Reasons
The species has a very large range in eastern North America. It can be locally abundant in many areas though has almost certainly declined in some as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation as well as overcollecting for the pet trade. Overall the species is secure because of the large number of viable occurrences, but nevertheless it is of conservation concern in some regions.
Range Extent Comments
As redefined by Martin et al. (2013), T. carolina (including the subspecies carolina, baurii, and major) occupies most of the eastern U.S. east of the Mississippi RIver. The range extends from southern New England to southern Florida, and from Michigan and Illinois southward to eastern Louisiana (Ernst and McBreen 1991). More westerly subspecies (mexicana, yucatana, triunguis) formerly assigned to T. carolina were reassigned to T. mexicana by Martin et al. (2013).
Occurrences Comments
Total number of distinct occurrences is unknown but surely exceeds 300.
Threat Impact Comments
Declines have occurred as a result of habitat loss and, probably, over-collection for export to other countries (mainly western Europe, Canada, Japan) (Lieberman 1994).

Rossell et al. (2002) documented a high level of disease-associated mortality in a population in North Carolina (specific disease unknown).
Ecology & Habitat

Description

The upper shell is hard, domed, arched, and generally has evidence of a keel. Coloration is highly variable. The lower shell is transversely hinged in adults, allowing the shell to be tightly closed. Maximum straight-line length of the upper shell is about 8.5 nches (22 cm). In mature males, the iris and spots on the forelimbs may be red, the rear portion of the lower shell is concave or not, and the vent is located beyond the rear edge of the upper shell when the tail is extended. In mature females, the vent is at or inside rear edge of upper shell when the tail is extended.

Habitat

Eastern box turtles inhabit forests, fields, forest-brush, and forest-field ecotones. In some areas they move seasonally from fields in spring to forest in summer. They commonly enters pools of shallow water in summer. For shelter, they burrow into loose soil, debris, mud, old stump holes, or under leaf litter. They can successfully hibernate in sites that may experience subfreezing temperatures. In Maryland bottomland forest, some hibernated in pits or depressions in forest floor (usually about 30 cm deep) usually within summer range; individuals tended to hibernate in same area in different years (Stickel 1989).

Egg laying sites often are sandy or loamy soils in open areas; females may move from bottomlands to warmer and drier sites to nest. In Maryland, females used the same nesting area in different years (Stickel 1989).

Ecology

Population density in various parts of the range varies from a few per hectare up to a few dozen per hectare (see Stickel 1950, Dolbeer 1969, Schwartz et al. 1984, Williams and Parker 1987, Ernst et al. 1994, Langtimm et al. 1996, Pilgrim et al. 1997).

Home ranges overlap; nonterritorial. Home range diameter was estimated at about 100-230 m in several studies. Adult home range was 2 ha or less in Missouri, averaged slightly more than 1 ha in Maryland and did not change much over several years (Stickel 1989). Over 25 years, the home ranges of 22 individuals in Missouri ranged from 2.2 to 10.6 ha (Schwartz and Schwartz 1991).

Annual survivorship was 0.93-0.94 for adults in Maryland, 0.74-0.92 for adults in Missouri, and 0.93 for subadults and adults in Indiana (Williams and Parker 1987, Stickel 1978, Iverson 1991). Minimum natural longevity is 45-50 years (Williams and Parker 1987).

Fire may play a critical role in the ecology of Florida box turtle populations (Ernst et al. 1995, Herpetol. Rev. 26:185-187).

Reproduction

Courtship and mating may occur at various times throughout the warmer months. The egg-laying period in most of the range extends from May through July (mainly June in Maryland, primarily June-July in Louisiana). Adult females lay one or more clutches of usually 1-8 eggs. In Louisiana, individual females generally laid 3-4 (maximum 6) clutches averaging 3-4 eggs per clutch, May-August; interclutch interval averaged 19 days; incubation period lasted 62-114 days (mean about 80-90 days) (Messinger and Patton 1995). In Florida, modal clutch size was 2 and only a small percentage of the population produced multiple clutches; some individuals appeared to skip reproduction in some years (Dodd 1997). Eggs hatch in about 2-3 months, often in August, September, or October; hatchlings may overwinter in the nest. Age of sexual maturity has been variously reported as 4-5 or 5-10 years (Williams and Parker 1987). Nesting of individual females may extend over at least 32 years (Stickel 1989). In the wild, few box turtles live more than 40 years, but some may live a century or more.
Terrestrial Habitats
Forest - HardwoodForest - ConiferForest - MixedWoodland - HardwoodWoodland - ConiferWoodland - MixedGrassland/herbaceousCropland/hedgerow
Other Nations (2)
CanadaNX
ProvinceRankNative
OntarioSXYes
United StatesN5
ProvinceRankNative
KansasS4Yes
ArkansasS4Yes
PennsylvaniaS3Yes
South CarolinaS3Yes
MichiganSNRYes
TexasS3Yes
FloridaS4Yes
LouisianaS5Yes
VirginiaS4Yes
Rhode IslandS4Yes
North CarolinaS5Yes
District of ColumbiaS3Yes
IndianaS3Yes
DelawareS5Yes
IllinoisS5Yes
TennesseeS4Yes
New JerseyS3Yes
New YorkS3Yes
AlabamaS5Yes
KentuckyS5Yes
OhioSNRYes
MississippiS5Yes
MissouriS5Yes
GeorgiaS5Yes
New HampshireSNRYes
IowaSUYes
ConnecticutS3Yes
MarylandS5Yes
West VirginiaSNRYes
MaineSNANo
MassachusettsS3Yes
OklahomaSNRYes
Roadless Areas (127)
Alabama (2)
AreaForestAcres
Blue MountainTalladega National Forest4,986
Oakey MountainTalladega National Forest6,129
Florida (4)
AreaForestAcres
Alexander Springs CreekOcala National Forest2,954
Clear LakeApalachicola National Forest5,592
Gum BayApalachicola National Forest11,645
Long BayApalachicola National Forest5,726
Georgia (14)
AreaForestAcres
Big MountainChattahoochee National Forest1,974
Boggs CreekChattahoochee National Forest2,073
Helton CreekChattahoochee National Forest2,348
Indian Grave GapChattahoochee National Forest1,020
Joe GapChattahoochee National Forest5,321
Kelly RidgeChattahoochee National Forest8,325
Lance CreekChattahoochee National Forest9,025
Pink KnobChattahoochee National Forest12,127
Rocky MountainChattahoochee National Forest4,269
Sarah's CreekChattahoochee National Forest6,888
Tate BranchChattahoochee National Forest1,069
Tripp BranchChattahoochee National Forest615
Turner CreekChattahoochee National Forest1,495
Wilson CoveChattahoochee National Forest545
Idaho (1)
AreaForestAcres
Bear CreekCaribou-Targhee National Forest118,582
Illinois (2)
AreaForestAcres
Burke BranchShawnee National Forest6,231
Ripple HollowShawnee National Forest3,788
Indiana (1)
AreaForestAcres
Mogan RidgeHoosier National Forest8,435
Kentucky (1)
AreaForestAcres
WolfpenDaniel Boone National Forest2,835
Michigan (1)
AreaForestAcres
Bear SwampHuron-Manistee National Forest3,915
New Hampshire (1)
AreaForestAcres
Cherry MountainWhite Mountain National Forest8,766
North Carolina (26)
AreaForestAcres
Bald MountainPisgah National Forest11,085
Balsam ConePisgah National Forest10,591
Barkers Creek (addition)Nantahala National Forest975
BearwallowPisgah National Forest4,113
Big Indian (addition)Nantahala National Forest1,155
Boteler PeakNantahala National Forest4,205
Catfish Lake NorthCroatan National Forest11,299
Cheoah BaldNantahala National Forest7,795
Cherry Cove (addition)Nantahala National Forest836
Chunky Gal (addition)Nantahala National Forest3,336
Craggy MountainPisgah National Forest2,657
Dobson KnobPisgah National Forest6,111
Graveyard Ridge (addition)Pisgah National Forest1,958
Harper CreekPisgah National Forest7,325
Jarrett CreekPisgah National Forest7,485
Laurel MountainPisgah National Forest5,683
Lost CovePisgah National Forest5,944
Mackey MountainPisgah National Forest5,934
Overflow CreekNantahala National Forest3,379
Pond Pine BCroatan National Forest2,961
SnowbirdNantahala National Forest8,489
South Mills RiverPisgah National Forest8,588
Tusquitee BaldNantahala National Forest13,670
Wesser BaldNantahala National Forest4,061
Wilson CreekPisgah National Forest4,863
Woods MountainPisgah National Forest9,602
South Carolina (4)
AreaForestAcres
Bee CoveSumter National Forest3,025
Big MountainSumter National Forest2,337
Ellicott Rock 1Sumter National Forest301
Wambaw ExtFrancis Marion National Forest527
Tennessee (12)
AreaForestAcres
Bald MountainCherokee National Forest11,743
Beaver Dam CreekCherokee National Forest5,070
Big Laurel Branch AdditionCherokee National Forest5,577
Brushy RidgeCherokee National Forest7,469
Flint Mill GapCherokee National Forest9,494
Joyce Kilmer Slickrock Add.Cherokee National Forest1,396
London Bridge BranchCherokee National Forest3,387
Rogers RidgeCherokee National Forest4,738
Sampson Mountain AdditionCherokee National Forest3,064
Slide HollowCherokee National Forest4,057
Stone MountainCherokee National Forest5,367
Sycamore CreekCherokee National Forest6,984
Virginia (46)
AreaForestAcres
Adams PeakGeorge Washington National Forest7,135
Bear CreekJefferson National Forest18,274
Beards MountainGeorge Washington National Forest7,505
Beartown Addition AJefferson National Forest1,370
Beaver Dam CreekJefferson National Forest1,135
Broad RunJefferson National Forest10,971
Brush MountainJefferson National Forest6,002
Brush Mountain EastJefferson National Forest4,916
Crawford MountainGeorge Washington National Forest9,892
Dolly AnnGeorge Washington National Forest7,855
Elliott KnobGeorge Washington National Forest9,380
Garden MountainJefferson National Forest3,960
Gum RunGeorge Washington National Forest12,620
Hoop HoleJefferson National Forest4,652
Hunting Camp Little Wolf CreekJefferson National Forest8,953
James River AdditionJefferson National Forest1,140
JerkemtightGeorge Washington National Forest16,687
Kelley MountainGeorge Washington National Forest7,590
Laurel ForkGeorge Washington National Forest9,967
Little AlleghanyGeorge Washington National Forest10,215
Little RiverGeorge Washington National Forest27,292
Little Walker MountainJefferson National Forest9,818
Long SpurJefferson National Forest6,417
Mill MountainGeorge Washington National Forest10,840
Mountain Lake Addition AJefferson National Forest1,469
Mountain Lake Addition B (VA)Jefferson National Forest3,405
Mt. PleasantGeorge Washington National Forest8,933
New London Bridge BranchJefferson National Forest844
North Fork PoundJefferson National Forest4,757
North MountainJefferson National Forest8,377
Northern MassanuttenGeorge Washington National Forest9,444
Oak KnobGeorge Washington National Forest10,882
Oliver MountainGeorge Washington National Forest13,090
Patterson MountainJefferson National Forest4,865
Peters Mountain Addition A (VA)Jefferson National Forest1,268
Price MountainJefferson National Forest9,119
Raccoon BranchJefferson National Forest4,388
Ramseys Draft AdditionGeorge Washington National Forest12,781
Rough Mountian AdditionGeorge Washington National Forest1,142
Seng MountainJefferson National Forest6,428
Shawvers Run AdditionJefferson National Forest1,927
SkidmoreGeorge Washington National Forest5,641
Southern MassanuttenGeorge Washington National Forest11,985
The PriestGeorge Washington National Forest5,737
Three RidgesGeorge Washington National Forest4,745
Three SistersGeorge Washington National Forest8,149
West Virginia (12)
AreaForestAcres
Cheat MountainMonongahela National Forest8,191
Dolly Sods Roaring PlainMonongahela National Forest13,392
Dry River (WV)George Washington National Forest7,331
Falls Of Hills CreekMonongahela National Forest6,925
Laurel ForkMonongahela National Forest1,172
Little MountainMonongahela National Forest8,172
Middle MountainMonongahela National Forest19,020
Mottesheard (WV)Jefferson National Forest3,964
Mountain Lake Addition B (WV)Jefferson National Forest557
North Mountain HopevilleMonongahela National Forest6,525
Peters Mountain Addition A (WV)Jefferson National Forest343
Seneca CreekMonongahela National Forest22,287
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