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Arethusa bulbosa

L.

Dragon's-mouth

G5Secure Found in 1 roadless area NatureServe Explorer →
G5SecureGlobal Rank
Least concernIUCN
UnknownThreat Impact
Identity
Unique IDELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.142646
Element CodePMORC04010
Record TypeSPECIES
ClassificationSpecies
Classification StatusStandard
Name CategoryVascular Plant
IUCNLeast concern
CITESAppendix II
Endemicoccurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations
KingdomPlantae
PhylumAnthophyta
ClassMonocotyledoneae
OrderOrchidales
FamilyOrchidaceae
GenusArethusa
Other Common Names
Aréthuse bulbeuse (FR) dragon's mouth (EN)
Concept Reference
Kartesz, J.T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. 2nd edition. 2 vols. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Conservation Status
Rank Method Rank calculation - Biotics v2
Review Date2025-01-09
Change Date2014-06-04
Edition Date2025-01-09
Edition AuthorsK. Crowley, MRO (1995); orig. S.C. Rooney (1984), rev. N. Ventrella (2025)
Threat ImpactUnknown
Range Extent>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)
Number of Occurrences> 300
Rank Reasons
Arethusa bulbosa is an orchid occurring in coniferous swamps, Sphagnum bogs, fens, and moist meadows of eastern North America from Newfoundland west to Minnesota and Saskatchewan, south to New Jersey and Ohio, and in the Appalachian Mountains in North Carolina in the United States and Canada. There are estimated to be over 1,200 occurrences rangewide, with the bulk of populations occurring in Canada and northern parts of its range. Populations fluctuate dramatically from year to year; however, it has been extirpated and is likely in decline in some parts of the United States due to habitat destruction and over-collecting
Range Extent Comments
Arethusa bulbosa occurs in eastern North America, from Newfoundland west to Minnesota and Saskatchewan, south to New Jersey and Ohio, and in the Appalachian Mountains in North Carolina in the United States and Canada (FNA 2002, Weakley and the Southeast Flora Team 2024). The species is potentially extirpated in South Carolina, Virginia, Delaware, and Connecticut, and considered extirpated in Maryland and Indiana. The distribution of A. bulbosa is patchy throughout much of this range, especially in the south. Range extent was estimated using herbarium specimens, photo-based observations, and NatureServe Network occurrence data collected between 1994 and 2025 (GBIF 2025, iNaturalist 2025, NatureServe 2025, SEINet 2025).
Occurrences Comments
By applying a 1 km separation distance to herbarium specimens, photo-based observations, and NatureServe Network occurrence data documented between 1994 and 2025, it is estimated that there are over 1,200 occurrences rangewide (GBIF 2025, iNaturalist 2025, NatureServe 2025, SEINet 2025).
Threat Impact Comments
Habitat loss and alteration of the hydrologic regime are likely the greatest threats to Arethusa bulbosa. Additional threats include over-collection of flowers from the wild, succession and shading by woody species, invasion of wetlands by exotic plant species, and human trampling of loose moss. Late frosts may also injure Arethusa bulbosa because this species flowers in early spring and relies on seed production for propagation (Case 1987).
Ecology & Habitat

Habitat

The preferred habitat of Arethusa bulbosa is acidic, Sphagnum hummocks within marl fens, often in openings among white cedar (Thuja occidentalis) (Case, pers. comm., 1995). Most frequently, this species grows in open, wet bogs, in full sunlight. Arethusa bulbosa also occurs in coniferous swamps and moist, sandy meadows (FNA 2002), and, according to Gawler (1982), around the shores of ponds.

Ecology

Arethusa bulbosa is an early successional species, disappearing as its habitat becomes invaded by shrubs. This species is commonly associated with such minerotrophs as alder, sweet gale (Myrica gale), several sedges (Carex spp.), bog rosemary, and leather leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata). Although this species has traditionally been classified as a plant of "sphagnous bogs," it actually occupies a variety of habitats, which exhibit a wide variety of minerotrophic conditions.

Reproduction

Arethusa bulbosa flowers during the first two weeks of June (rarely in May). This species propagates by seed, although Thien and Marcks (1972) reported that only 16% of the flowers observed developed into mature capsules.
Terrestrial Habitats
Grassland/herbaceous
Palustrine Habitats
FORESTED WETLANDBog/fenRiparian
Other Nations (2)
CanadaN5
ProvinceRankNative
Northwest TerritoriesS2Yes
LabradorS1Yes
Island of NewfoundlandS4Yes
QuebecS3Yes
OntarioS4Yes
New BrunswickS4Yes
Prince Edward IslandS2Yes
SaskatchewanS2Yes
Nova ScotiaS4Yes
AlbertaS1Yes
ManitobaS2Yes
United StatesN5
ProvinceRankNative
North CarolinaS1Yes
District of ColumbiaSHYes
VirginiaSHYes
MassachusettsS2Yes
MarylandSXYes
WisconsinS4Yes
OhioS1Yes
New HampshireS1Yes
MaineS3Yes
VermontS1Yes
Rhode IslandS1Yes
ConnecticutSHYes
IndianaSXYes
New YorkS2Yes
DelawareSHYes
South CarolinaS1Yes
MinnesotaS4Yes
MichiganS3Yes
PennsylvaniaS1Yes
New JerseyS2Yes
Threat Assessments
ThreatScopeSeverityTiming
1 - Residential & commercial developmentUnknownUnknownUnknown
5 - Biological resource useUnknownUnknownUnknown
5.2 - Gathering terrestrial plantsUnknownUnknownUnknown
7 - Natural system modificationsUnknownUnknownUnknown
7.1 - Fire & fire suppressionUnknownUnknownUnknown
7.1.2 - Suppression in fire frequency/intensityUnknownUnknownUnknown
8 - Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseasesUnknownUnknownUnknown
8.1 - Invasive non-native/alien species/diseasesUnknownUnknownUnknown

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Plant Characteristics
DurationPERENNIAL, SPRING-FLOWERING
Economic Value (Genus)No
Roadless Areas (1)
Minnesota (1)
AreaForestAcres
Hegman LakesSuperior National Forest675
References (24)
  1. Brackley, F. E. 1985. The orchids of New Hampshire. Rhodora 87:1-117.
  2. Case, Frederick W. (Fred). Saginaw, MI. Pers. comm. on February 14, 1995, with Kathy Crowley, MRO.
  3. Case, F. W. 1987. Orchids of the Western Great Lakes Region. Cranbrook Institue of Science.
  4. Case, F. W., Jr. 1964. Orchids of the Western Great Lakes Region. Cranbrook Institute of Science Bulletin Number 48. Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.
  5. Correll, D.S. 1950 [1978]. Native orchids of North America north of Mexico. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, California. 400 pp.
  6. Fernald, M. L. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. 8th edition. Corrected printing (1970). D. Van Nostrand Company, New York. 1632 pp.
  7. Flora of North America Editorial Committee (FNA). 2002a. Flora of North America north of Mexico. Vol. 26. Magnoliophyta: Liliidae: Liliales and Orchidales. Oxford Univ. Press, New York. xxvi + 723 pp.
  8. Gawler, S. C. 1982. Arethusa (Arethusa bulbosa) a rare orchid in Maine. Planning Report #76. S. P. O. Augusta, Maine.
  9. Gawler, S. C. 1983. Shrub invasion in Fens. Wetlands Ecology Class, University of Wisconsin. Unpublished.
  10. Gleason, H.A. 1952. The new Britton and Brown illustrated flora of the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. 3 volumes. Hafner Press, New York. 1732 pp.
  11. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). 2025. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) data portal. Online. Available: https://www.gbif.org/ (accessed 2025).
  12. Henry, L.K., W.E. Buker and D.L. Pearth. 1975. Western Pennsylvania Orchids. Castanea 40 (2):93-171.
  13. iNaturalist. 2025. Online. Available: https://www.inaturalist.org (accessed 2025).
  14. Kartesz, J.T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. 2nd edition. 2 vols. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
  15. Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum. First edition printed by Adlard & Son, Bartholomew Press, Dorking, Great Britain. 2 vol.
  16. Luer, C.A. 1975. The native orchids of the United States and Canada excluding Florida. New York Botanical Garden. 361 pp.
  17. McCance, R.M., Jr., and J.F. Burns, eds. 1984. Ohio endangered and threatened vascular plants: Abstracts of state-listed taxa. Division Natural Areas and Preserves, Ohio Dept. Natural Resources, Columbus. 635 pp.
  18. NatureServe. 2025. NatureServe Network Biodiversity Location Data. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia.
  19. Rooney, S. C. 1982. Mapping of rare plant stations at Crystal Bog Preserve. Small grants program. TNC Maine Chapter. Brunswick, Maine. Unpublished.
  20. Rooney, S. C. and C. McKellar. 1980. Crystal Bog Summer Research Report. The Nature Conservancy, Maine Chapter. Brunswick, Maine. Unpublished.
  21. Smith, Welby. Minnesota Natural Heritage Program, Nongame Inventory & Research, DNR, St. Paul, MN. Pers. comm. of February 13, 1995, with Kathy Crowley, MRO.
  22. Southwest Environmental Information Network (SEINet). 2025. Collections Databases. Online. Available: https://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/collections/index.php (accessed 2025).
  23. Thien, L. B. and B. G. Marcks. 1972. The floral biology of Arethusa bulbosa, Calopogon pulchellus and Pogonia ophioglossoides (Orchidaceae). Canadian Journal of Botany 50:2319-2325.
  24. Weakley, A.S., and Southeastern Flora Team. 2024. Flora of the southeastern United States. Edition of March 4, 2024. University of North Carolina Herbarium (NCU), North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 2203 pp.