Setophaga tigrina

BREEDING: Primarily in forests of spruce (PICEA spp.) and/or fir (ABIES spp.), typically in stands > 50 years old, > 15 m tall, with well developed crowns and some trees that rise above canopy for use as singing posts (AOU 1998, Rosenberg and Hodgeman 2000, Baltz and Latta 1998, Baker 1978, Welsh 1987, Semenchuk 1992). Trees may be scattered or dense; also found near forest edge, especially if birches or hemlocks are present and more open land with small trees (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995). Proliferates in areas heavily infested by spruce-budworms, and may not occur after the outbreak has subsided (Brewster 1938, Erskine 1977, Morse 1989).

In Ontario found in habitats dominated by White (P. GLAUCA) or Black Spruce (P. MARIANA) of at least 30 m height with Balsam Fir (ABIES BALSAMEA) in canopy and an understory of Speckled Alder (ALNUS INCANA), Labrador Tea (LEDUM GROENLANDICUM), and briers (Kendeigh 1947). In Quebec, occurs in White Spruce plantations at least 50 years old with a sparse shrub understory; average distance between trees 2.4 m +/- 1.3 SD and canopy height > 10 m (DesGranges 1980). In Alberta, uses dense, mature White Spruce, stand of coniferous and mixed forest (Semenchuck 1992).

In Michigan, found in wet coniferous bogs dominated by black spruce (Baker 1978, L.C. Binford in Brewer et al. 1991). In New York, occupies stands of medium aged spruce (25-75 years old), with some Balsam Fir (J. M. C. Peterson in Andrle and Carroll 1988). In Maine, uses various coniferous forest stands, including second-growth Balsam Fir and Red Spruce (P. RUBENS) with an open understory (Morse 1978).

MIGRATION: In a variety of forest woodlands (conifers and especially spruces are preferred), scrub and thicket (Godfrey 1986, AOU 1983, Dunn and Garrett 1997). In spring found in association with exotic flowering trees such as silk-oats and bottlebrush as well as flower and catkins of hardwoods such as oaks, hickories, and honey locusts. Fall migrants commonly in berry producing shrubs and small vineyards within woodlands. In Indiana, found in such habitats on campuses, golf courses, tree nurseries, pine plantations and residential areas, in brier patches, overgrown fence rows and weedy roadsides (Mumford and Keller 1984, Baltz and Latta 1988).

NON-BREEDING: Overwinter in mature tropical forests, open woodland and exotic shade and flowering trees (e.g., palm, eucalyptus, casuarinas) over a wide range of elevation. Commonly found in gardens or shade coffee plantations, where flowering plants are abundant. Includes towns, ornamental gardens, parklands, montane forest, arid mesquite, pines, mangroves and other flowering trees, and occasionally dense forest (AOU 1983, AOU 1988, Ehrlich, Dobkin, and Wheye, 1988, Dunn and Garrett 1997, Pashley 1989). Nectar sources (flowering plants) are an important winter habitat component.

Variety of habitats in the West Indies; shade coffee plantations, coastal thickets and almost anywhere plants are flowering, but uncommon in native dry forest (Raffaele et al. 1998). In the Bahamas, common in gardens and plantings, second-growth, and Red Mangrove (RHIZOPHORA MANGLE); rarely in pine forest (Baltz 1993). In Jamaica, primarily in gardens and parklands to 1,500 m (Lack and Lack 1972). In Puerto Rico and Cuba, common in dry coastal vegetation, more commonly in BUCIDA BUCERAS, BURSERA SIMARUBA, and COCCOLOBA DIVERSIFOLIA (Post 1978, Wallace et al. 1996), and secondary forest (Stacier 1992, Baltz and Latta 1998).

In the Dominican Republic, occurs in pine and broadleaf, dry scrub, pasture and shade-coffee plantations (Arendt 1992, Wunderle and Waide 1993). Common in Cuba where it is found in forests and gardens (Garrido and Kirkconnell 2000). In Mexico, found in semiarid scrub and woodland and gardens at flowering trees (Howell and Webb 1995). In Costa Rica, in open groves, garden trees, open areas, associating with flowering EUCALYPTUS and ERYTHRINA trees (Stiles and Skutch 1989).

Solitary during breeding season excluding interactions with mate and young. During migration will join mixed foraging flocks of up to 30 birds (Burns 1915), but also solitary, defending short-term territories (Sealy 1988, 1989). Behavior on wintering grounds depends upon habitat. Some birds join mixed species flocks, others are solitary. Most Puerto Rico birds were territorial (Hagan and Johnston 1992), while birds in some Dominican Republic habitats joined foraging flocks (never in coffee plantations, Latta and Wunderle 1996). In the Bahamas, known to defend widely spaced blooming century plants that provide insects and nectar (Emlen 1973, Morse 1989).

Basic information is sparse due to the extreme height of the nest and the female's elusive behavior. Nest is invariably in the uppermost clump of thick foliage near the top of tall conifers (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995). Most often in spruce, occasionally in fir (Bent 1953), and concealed in thick foliage against main tree stem (Phillip and Bowdish 1919, Pettinghill 1971). Height typically 9-18 m (Baicich and Harrison 1997). Nest is a bulky cup composed of sphagnum moss, spruce twigs, grass, pine needles, cedar bark, and plant down, lined with animal hair, rootlets, and feathers (Baicich and Harrison 1997). Typically visible from below.

Incubation by female. Female lays in June; 4-9 eggs, usually 6-7, up to 9 in spruce budworm years (Baltz and Latta 1998, Baicich and Harrison 1997). Parents approach nest by hopping upward from base of nest tree (Pettinghill 1971). Reproductive output increases when spruce budworm is abundant. No information on nestling or fledgling period. Single brooded. An apparently rare host of the Brown-headed Cowbird (Friedman and Kiff 1985).