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Colinus virginianus

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Northern Bobwhite

G4Apparently Secure (G4G5) Found in 12 roadless areas NatureServe Explorer →
G4Apparently SecureGlobal Rank
Near threatenedIUCN
PSESA Status
Identity
Unique IDELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106280
Element CodeABNLC21020
Record TypeSPECIES
ClassificationSpecies
Classification StatusStandard
Name CategoryVertebrate Animal
IUCNNear threatened
Endemicoccurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumCraniata
ClassAves
OrderGalliformes
FamilyOdontophoridae
GenusColinus
USESAPS
Other Common Names
Codorniz Cotuí (ES) Colin de Virginie (FR) northern bobwhite (EN)
Concept Reference
American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1998. Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in The Auk]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.
Taxonomic Comments
Some authors include C. nigrogularis in this species (AOU 1983). Formerly in family Phasianidae; placed in family Odontophoridae by AOU (1997).
Conservation Status
Rank MethodExpertise without calculation
Review Date2016-04-07
Change Date2014-03-27
Edition Date2014-03-27
Edition AuthorsPalis, J. (Revised by Jue, Dean K. in 2014-03-27)
Range Extent>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)
Number of Occurrences21 to >300
Rank Reasons
Despite its decline, this bird still numbers in the hundreds of thousands if not millions. Its population status should continue to be monitored, however, with appropriate steps taken to prevent any further decline in population numbers.
Range Extent Comments
RESIDENT: southeastern Wyoming to southern Ontario and New England, south through the central and eastern U.S. to Guatemala and Florida; also in southeastern Arizona (reintroduction in progress) and eastern Sonora (AOU 1998, Brennan 1999). INTRODUCED: established in Washington, Oregon, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, St. Croix, the Bahamas, and New Zealand (AOU 1998).
Occurrences Comments
Present distribution in U.S. has become highly fragmented because of haitat loss, silviculture, and lack of prescribed fire. However, its world-wide distribution has expanded as a result of introduction by humans for hunting (Brennan, 1999).
Threat Impact Comments
HABITAT CHANGE/FRAGMENTATION: Principal threat appears to be habitat loss and fragmentation associated with changing land use, particularly clean farming techniques, single crop production, plantation forestry, fire suppression, replacement of native grass pasture with Tall Fescue, and over-grazing by cattle (Barnes et al. 1995, Brennan 1991, Brennan 1999, Brennan et al. 1998, Dumke 1982 cited in Page and Austen 1994, Engstrom et al. 1984, Klimstra and Scott 1957, Lee and Brennan 1994, Roseberry and Klimstra 1984, Roseberry et al. 1979, Vance 1976). Due principally to habitat alteration, only about 24% of the state of Illinois contains suitable habitat at the landscape level (Roseberry and Sudkamp 1998). Browsing by White-tailed Deer (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS) reduces vegetative cover and seed production of important food plants (Stokes et al. 1994). RED IMPORTED FIRE ANTS: In the southern portion of the range, the Red Imported Fire Ant (SOLENOPSIS INVICTA) has been implicated in the Northern Bobwhite decline. Experimental studies have shown that exposure to Red Imported Fire Ants can alter chick behavior, and reduce chick biomass and survival (Giuliano et al. 1996, Mueller et al. 1999, Pederson et al. 1996). In Texas, examination of CBC data indicated a decline in abundance following Red Imported Fire Ant infestation (Allen et al. 1995). In addition to direct effects, Red Imported Fire Ants may indirectly impact bobwhites by reducing the abundance and diversity of the native invertebrate fauna (Porter and Savignano 1990). The impact of Red Imported Fire Ants is not readily separated from habitat degradation because Red Imported Fire Ant populations respond favorably to such disturbances as overgrazing which, in itself, negatively impacts bobwhite populations. The negative impacts of Red Imported Fire Ants may be limited to polygyne (multiple queen) colonies which attain much higher densities than monogyne (single queen) colonies (L. Brennan, pers. comm.). PREDATION: Predation is an important source of mortality, particularly during the breeding season (Burger et al. 1995a, Roseberry and Klimstra 1984, Stoddard 1931 cited in Brennan 1999). Nearly every opportunistic terrestrial predator within the range of the bobwhite will prey on eggs, young or adults (Brennan 1999). The primary known mammalian predators include Raccoon (PROCYON LOTOR), Virginia Opossum (DIDELPHIS VIRGINIANUS), Striped Skunk (MEPHITIS MEPHITIS), Red Fox (VULPES VULPES), and Coyote (CANIS LATRANS; Brennan 1999, Lehmann 1946). Other important predators include birds, snakes, and domestic cats and dogs (Brennan 1999, Burger et al. 1995a, Klimstra and Scott 1957, Page and Austen 1994, Robinette and Doerr 1993). OTHER: Large flocks of wintering Canada Geese (BRANTA CANADENSIS) can deplete all waste grain from crop fields, thereby eliminating an important food source (Fernald 1977 cited in Roseberry and Klimstra 1984). In northern portions of the range, prolonged cold weather and/or heavy snow cover can reduce winter survival (Page and Austen 1994, Robel and Kemp 1997, Roseberry and Klimstra 1984). Excessive rainfall and drought can also limit populations (Brennan 1999). Ingestion of spent lead shot is an insignificant threat (Best et al. 1992).
Ecology & Habitat

Habitat

Inhabits a wide variety of vegetation types, particularly early successional stages. Occurs in croplands, grasslands, pastures, fallow fields, grass-brush rangelands, open pinelands, open mixed pine-hardwood forests, and habitat mosaics (Brennan 1999). In the Midwest and Northeast, associated principally with heterogeneous, patchy landscapes comprised of moderate amounts of row crops and grasslands and abundant woody edge (Burger and Linduska 1967, Roseberry and Sudkamp 1998). Open canopy (<50%) pinelands and mixed pine-hardwood forests that have diverse groundcover vegetation, provide ideal habitat in the south (Brennan 1999, DeVos and Mueller 1993). In Texas rangelands, prefers areas containing the most bare ground, least grass cover, and most tall forbs (Hammerquist-Wilson and Crawford 1981). In the Oklahoma panhandle, prefers wooded riparian habitats (Schemnitz 1964). Selects more open, taller vegetation types than Scaled Quail (CALLIPEPLA SQUAMATA) in areas of sympatry in Texas (Reid et al. 1979). Nests on the ground, in a scrape lined with grasses and/or other dead vegetation, typically within standing herbaceous vegetation within 15-20 m of openings such as roads or fields. Grasses are typically woven over the top of the nest to conceal it (Brennan 1999).

Ecology

POPULATION PARAMETERS: Incurs high annual mortality resulting in a short life span and rapid population turnover (Brennan 1999). Of 1156 birds banded, only one was recovered 5 years after banding (Marsden and Baskett 1958). Oldest known wild bird lived 6 years, 5 months (Marsden 1961); however, most individuals live less than one year (Brennan 1999). Adult females suffer higher mortality than adult males, but the mortality rate of young is not significantly different from adults (Burger et al. 1995a, Pollock et al. 1989). In Missouri, mortality was higher from fall to spring than from spring to fall (Burger et al. 1995a). In North Carolina, winter survivorship and summer population densities were higher in non-hunted areas than hunted areas (Robinette and Doerr 1993). Hunter harvest may be additive to natural mortality (Pollock et al. 1989, Robinette and Doerr 1993, Roseberry and Klimstra 1984), especially during the latter part of the hunting season (L. Brennan, pers. comm.). On average, annual mortality is about 70% and net production is 2.33 juveniles per adult in southern portions of the range; whereas in northern areas, annual mortality is about 80% and net production is approximately 4 juveniles per adult (Guthery 1997). Sex ratios are male biased, possibly due, in part, to greater mortality incurred by adult females (Burger et al. 1995a, Roseberry and Klimstra 1984).

DENSITY/HOME RANGE: Although densities of 2.2 birds/ha are common on managed areas, densities as high as 6.6-7.6 birds/ha have been observed on private hunting plantations in the southeastern U.S. pinelands and on Texas coastal rangelands, respectively (Brennan 1999). Densities on areas not managed for quail range from 0.14-0.65 birds/ha (Roseberry and Klimstra 1984). Size of home range varies with habitat conditions and reproductive status (Brennan 1999). In Mississippi, home ranges of males ranged from 9.9-282 hectares (Lee 1994 cited in Brennan 1999) and those of females ranged from 11.2-44.1 hectares (Manley 1994 cited in Brennan 1999). In north Florida, home ranges of males and females ranged from 3.4-47.7 hectares (mean = 16.0; DeVos and Mueller 1993). On two study sites in Kansas, female home range size averaged 54 hectares and 75 hectares, whereas male home range size averaged 65 hectares and 103 hectares (Taylor et al. 1999a). In Texas, home ranges of females averaged 0.7 hectares and 1.4 hectares with prefledging and postfledging broods, respectively (Taylor and Guthery 1994).

AGGREGATIONS: Outside the breeding season Northern Bobwhites are gregarious and form coveys, generally consisting of 10-15 birds. Coveys occupy 3.3-20 hectares of habitat. Birds in a covey roost together overnight in a circle, facing out, as a means of conserving heat (Johnsgard 1973).

PARASITES: Internal parasites include helminths and nematodes; external parasites include lice, ticks, mites, and fleas. Known diseases include avian pox, ulcerative enteritis, quail bronchitis, and histomoniasis (Brennan 1999). Parasite loads and the number of species of endoparasites infecting quail tends to be higher in areas of relatively high quail densities (Dimmick 1992 cited in Brennan 1999).

Reproduction

Eggs laid as early as April in the south, but not until May in the north. Renests as late as September, or even October in south Texas. Clutch size averages 12-14 eggs and ranges from 7-28 eggs. Requires approximately 18 days to complete a clutch. Incubation, by one or both sexes, begins after the last egg is laid and averages 23 days. Hatching is synchronous. One or both sexes brood the young for the first two weeks of life. Females can produce up to three broods per season. Young are capable of flight about two weeks after hatching and both sexes are capable of breeding in the first year after hatching (Brennan 1999). Above average rainfall and cooler temperatures, particularly in arid regions, increases reproductive success (Kiel 1976, Lehmann 1953).
Terrestrial Habitats
Woodland - HardwoodWoodland - ConiferWoodland - MixedShrubland/chaparralSavannaGrassland/herbaceousOld fieldCropland/hedgerow
Palustrine Habitats
Riparian
Other Nations (2)
United StatesN5
ProvinceRankNative
MarylandS5Yes
Rhode IslandS4B,S4NYes
OhioS5Yes
IowaS5BYes
MontanaSNANo
WisconsinS1BYes
IllinoisS5Yes
New MexicoS5B,S5NYes
MassachusettsS2Yes
South DakotaS4Yes
South CarolinaS4Yes
New HampshireSXYes
ArkansasS3Yes
New YorkS4Yes
New JerseyS5B,S5NYes
FloridaS4Yes
WyomingS1Yes
West VirginiaS1B,S1NYes
MichiganS2Yes
TexasS4BYes
IdahoSNANo
MinnesotaSUYes
KentuckyS4Yes
OregonSNANo
WashingtonSNANo
GeorgiaS3Yes
ConnecticutS4Yes
PennsylvaniaSXYes
District of ColumbiaS1Yes
MissouriS5Yes
OklahomaS5BYes
DelawareS3Yes
ArizonaS1Yes
IndianaS4Yes
AlabamaS5Yes
LouisianaS3Yes
ColoradoS4Yes
NebraskaS5Yes
North CarolinaS3Yes
TennesseeS2Yes
KansasS5Yes
MississippiS3Yes
VirginiaS5Yes
VermontSNANo
CanadaN1
ProvinceRankNative
OntarioS1Yes
British ColumbiaSNANo
AlbertaSNANo
Threat Assessments
ThreatScopeSeverityTiming
2 - Agriculture & aquaculturePervasive - largeModerate or 11-30% pop. declineHigh (continuing)
2.1 - Annual & perennial non-timber cropsPervasive - largeSlight or 1-10% pop. declineHigh (continuing)
2.2 - Wood & pulp plantationsLarge - smallSlight or 1-10% pop. declineHigh (continuing)
2.3 - Livestock farming & ranchingLarge - smallModerate or 11-30% pop. declineHigh (continuing)
5 - Biological resource usePervasive - largeSlight or 1-10% pop. declineHigh (continuing)
5.1 - Hunting & collecting terrestrial animalsPervasive - largeSlight or 1-10% pop. declineHigh (continuing)

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Roadless Areas (12)
Arkansas (1)
AreaForestAcres
Little BlakelyOuachita National Forest3,342
Florida (2)
AreaForestAcres
Alexander Springs CreekOcala National Forest2,954
Farles PrairieOcala National Forest1,901
North Carolina (2)
AreaForestAcres
Catfish Lake NorthCroatan National Forest11,299
Craggy MountainPisgah National Forest2,657
Tennessee (2)
AreaForestAcres
Bald MountainCherokee National Forest11,743
Stone MountainCherokee National Forest5,367
Utah (2)
AreaForestAcres
Beehive PeakFishlake National Forest59,137
Lone Peak ContiguousWasatch-Cache National Forest874
Virginia (1)
AreaForestAcres
Bear CreekJefferson National Forest18,274
Washington (1)
AreaForestAcres
Green MountainOlympic National Forest4,617
West Virginia (1)
AreaForestAcres
Mcgowan MountainMonongahela National Forest10,504
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