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Home/Species/ Cedar Waxwing

Bombycilla cedrorum

Vieillot, 1808

Cedar Waxwing

G5Secure Found in 342 roadless areas NatureServe Explorer →
G5SecureGlobal Rank
Least concernIUCN
Identity
Unique IDELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102435
Element CodeABPBN01020
Record TypeSPECIES
ClassificationSpecies
Classification StatusStandard
Name CategoryVertebrate Animal
IUCNLeast concern
Endemicoccurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumCraniata
ClassAves
OrderPasseriformes
FamilyBombycillidae
GenusBombycilla
Other Common Names
Ampelis Chinito (ES) cedar waxwing (EN) Jaseur d'Amérique (FR)
Concept Reference
American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1998. Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in The Auk]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.
Taxonomic Comments
Banks and Browning (1995), as first reviser, elected cedrorum over americana for the specific name, and they regarded B. carolinensis as a nomen oblitum.
Conservation Status
Rank MethodExpertise without calculation
Review Date2016-04-06
Change Date1996-12-03
Range Extent>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)
Number of Occurrences81 to >300
Rank Reasons
Large range, relatively common, increasing populations.
Range Extent Comments
BREEDS: southeastern Alaska east to Newfoundland and south to northern California, northern Utah, western Oklahoma, southern Illinois, northern Alabama, northern Georgia, and northwestern South Carolina. WINTERS: locally from southern Canada and the northern U.S. south to central Panama, irregularly to the Bahamas and Greater Antilles, casually to northern South America.
Ecology & Habitat

Description

An 18-cm-long bird with a crest, yellow-tipped tail, silky plumage, and waxy red tips on the secondaries; brown above; pale yellow belly; white undertail coverts; juveniles has dark streaking (NGS 1983).

Diagnostic Characteristics

Differs from the bohemian waxwing in smaller size, browner plumage (vs. grayish), white undertail coverts (vs. cinnamon), and lack of white and yellow markings in wing.

Habitat

A wide variety of open woodland types, either deciduous or coniferous, forest edge, second growth, parks, orchards and gardens; in migration and winter occurring wherever there are trees (AOU 1983).

Nests in tree or shrub, 2-15 m above ground, in fork or on outer horizontal limb (Terres 1980).

Ecology

Usually travels in small groups or flocks; winter flocks may number in thousands.

Reproduction

Breeding season variable. Female incubates 3-5, sometimes 6, eggs for 12-16 days. Young are tended by both adults, leave nest at 14-18 days. Sometimes nests in small colonies of up to 12 pairs.
Terrestrial Habitats
Forest - HardwoodForest - ConiferForest - MixedWoodland - HardwoodWoodland - ConiferWoodland - MixedOld fieldSuburban/orchard
Palustrine Habitats
Riparian
Other Nations (2)
United StatesN5
ProvinceRankNative
IllinoisS5Yes
North DakotaSNRB,SNRNYes
WyomingS4BYes
LouisianaS5NYes
GeorgiaS5Yes
MississippiSNAYes
WisconsinS5BYes
PennsylvaniaS5BYes
UtahS3B,S4NYes
TennesseeS4Yes
Rhode IslandS5BYes
KentuckyS4BYes
New HampshireS5Yes
New YorkS5BYes
MinnesotaSNRB,SNRNYes
District of ColumbiaS1B,S4NYes
New MexicoS5NYes
South CarolinaS4Yes
IdahoS5Yes
CaliforniaSNRYes
West VirginiaS4N,S5BYes
ColoradoS4B,S5NYes
ArkansasS1B,S5NYes
OhioS5Yes
MarylandS5B,S5NYes
VirginiaS4Yes
NevadaS3B,S4NYes
VermontS4B,S5NYes
FloridaSNRNYes
Navajo NationSNAYes
IowaS5B,S5NYes
WashingtonS4B,S3NYes
MassachusettsS5Yes
North CarolinaS4B,S5NYes
KansasS3B,S5NYes
NebraskaSNRNYes
OregonS5Yes
South DakotaS5B,S3NYes
MaineS3N,S5BYes
MontanaS5BYes
DelawareS4Yes
AlabamaS3B,S5NYes
AlaskaS3BYes
MissouriSNRB,SNRNYes
TexasS5Yes
New JerseyS4B,S4NYes
ArizonaS3NYes
IndianaS4Yes
OklahomaSNRYes
MichiganS5Yes
ConnecticutS5BYes
CanadaN5B,N5N
ProvinceRankNative
NunavutSUBYes
Prince Edward IslandS5BYes
Island of NewfoundlandS4B,SUMYes
OntarioS5Yes
QuebecS5BYes
Yukon TerritoryS3BYes
LabradorS2B,SUMYes
New BrunswickS5BYes
Northwest TerritoriesS4Yes
ManitobaS5B,S1NYes
SaskatchewanS5BYes
AlbertaS5BYes
British ColumbiaS5Yes
Nova ScotiaS5BYes
Roadless Areas (342)
Alabama (1)
AreaForestAcres
Blue MountainTalladega National Forest4,986
Alaska (12)
AreaForestAcres
GravinaTongass National Forest37,381
HyderTongass National Forest121,723
KartaTongass National Forest52,117
LindenbergTongass National Forest25,855
MadanTongass National Forest68,553
North BaranofTongass National Forest314,089
North EtolinTongass National Forest40,993
North KupreanofTongass National Forest114,660
RedoubtTongass National Forest68,347
RevillaTongass National Forest29,298
Sitka UrbanTongass National Forest112,003
Taku-SnettishamTongass National Forest664,928
Arizona (9)
AreaForestAcres
BoulderTonto National Forest40,359
Butterfly Roadless AreaCoronado National Forest42,296
GaliuroCoronado National Forest28,333
Lime CreekTonto National Forest42,568
Middle Dragoon RoadlessCoronado National Forest10,543
PinalenoCoronado National Forest130,920
TumacacoriCoronado National Forest44,594
Upper Rincon RoadlessCoronado National Forest2,991
Willis CanyonKaibab National Forest9,688
California (51)
AreaForestAcres
Birch CreekInyo National Forest28,816
Black ButteLos Padres National Forest5,116
CajonSan Bernardino National Forest7,548
CamuesaLos Padres National Forest8,209
Castle Crags AShasta-Trinity National Forest113
Castle Crags BShasta-Trinity National Forest1,619
ChannellSequoia National Forest45,429
ChicoSequoia National Forest39,836
City CreekSan Bernardino National Forest9,997
ColdwaterCleveland National Forest8,402
Crystal CreekSan Bernardino National Forest6,783
Cucamonga AAngeles National Forest1,249
Cucamonga CSan Bernardino National Forest4,106
Devil GulchSierra National Forest30,490
DomeStanislaus National Forest11,085
Domeland Add.Sequoia National Forest3,046
Dry LakesLos Padres National Forest17,043
EagleStanislaus National Forest16,116
East YubaTahoe National Forest17,968
Ferguson RidgeSierra National Forest6,104
Horse Mdw.Inyo National Forest5,687
Kings RiverSierra National Forest52,999
LavasModoc National Forest25,864
Log Cabin SaddlebagInyo National Forest15,165
Magic MountainAngeles National Forest15,542
Malduce BuckhornLos Padres National Forest14,177
MatilijaLos Padres National Forest5,218
Middle YubaTahoe National Forest7,379
Mill PeakSan Bernardino National Forest7,884
MonoLos Padres National Forest28,141
Mt. JacksonHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest20,721
Mystic (CA)Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest836
NightStanislaus National Forest3,173
NordhoffLos Padres National Forest12,031
North Fork SmithSix Rivers National Forest37,898
Orleans Mtn. BSix Rivers National Forest17,183
ParsnipModoc National Forest8,485
PortugueseKlamath National Forest18,915
PyramidEldorado National Forest24,347
San DimasAngeles National Forest7,160
San JoaquinSierra National Forest22,474
Sespe - FrazierAngeles National Forest4,254
Sespe - FrazierLos Padres National Forest106,910
Soldier CanyonInyo National Forest40,589
Stanley MountainLos Padres National Forest14,674
TequepisLos Padres National Forest9,080
West GirardShasta-Trinity National Forest37,516
Wheeler RidgeInyo National Forest15,744
White LedgeLos Padres National Forest18,632
Wonoga Pk.Inyo National Forest11,272
WoolstaffSequoia National Forest41,445
Colorado (3)
AreaForestAcres
Dome PeakRoutt NF35,716
HermosaSan Juan NF148,103
Long ParkRoutt NF42,100
Georgia (2)
AreaForestAcres
Kelly RidgeChattahoochee National Forest8,325
Pink KnobChattahoochee National Forest12,127
Idaho (13)
AreaForestAcres
Bear CreekCaribou-Targhee National Forest118,582
Bighorn - WeitasNez Perce-Clearwater National Forest254,845
Borah PeakSalmon-Challis National Forest130,463
HoodooNez Perce-Clearwater National Forest153,868
Italian PeakCaribou-Targhee National Forest141,158
Lemhi RangeSalmon-Challis National Forest308,533
NeedlesPayette National Forest131,279
North Lochsa SlopeNez Perce-Clearwater National Forest117,662
PalisadesCaribou-Targhee National Forest122,002
Peace RockBoise National Forest191,734
Pioneer MountainsSawtooth National Forest119,563
Pioneer MountainsSalmon-Challis National Forest172,460
SeceshPayette National Forest248,088
Minnesota (4)
AreaForestAcres
Baker - Homer - Brule LakesSuperior National Forest6,712
Hegman LakesSuperior National Forest675
Kawishiwi Lake To SawbillSuperior National Forest15,305
Wood LakeSuperior National Forest596
Montana (41)
AreaForestAcres
Allan Mountain (01946)Bitterroot National Forest104,184
Bear - Marshall - Scapegoat - SwanLolo National Forest118,485
Bear - Marshall - Scapegoat - SwanLewis and Clark National Forest344,022
Big LogHelena National Forest8,954
Big Snowy Mountains WsaLewis and Clark National Forest88,003
Blue Joint (mwsa) (01941)Bitterroot National Forest64,764
Bmss Ra 1485Flathead National Forest334,275
BridgerGallatin National Forest45,059
Buckhorn Ridge (MT)Kootenai National Forest34,716
Cabinet Face East #671Kootenai National Forest50,326
Cattle GulchBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest19,390
Cube Iron - SilcoxLolo National Forest36,998
Deadhorse Ridge Ra 1128Flathead National Forest23,648
Fishtail SaddlebackCuster National Forest16,359
Freezeout MountainBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest97,305
Gallatin FringeGallatin National Forest51,571
Government Mountain #673Kootenai National Forest10,090
HolterHelena National Forest1,965
Hyalite - Porcupine - Buffalo Horn Wilderness Study AreaGallatin National Forest143,991
King MountainCuster National Forest12,134
LionheadGallatin National Forest33,549
MadisonGallatin National Forest127,859
Marshall PeakLolo National Forest9,069
Marston Face # 172Kootenai National Forest9,098
Middle Mtn. / Tobacco RootsBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest96,487
Mt. Gmt Area HCuster National Forest1,335
North AbsarokaCuster National Forest21,063
North AbsarokaGallatin National Forest159,075
O'Neil CreekBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest6,279
QuiggLolo National Forest67,267
Red Lodge Creek HellroaringCuster National Forest17,210
Reservation DivideLolo National Forest16,908
Scotchman Peaks (MT)Kootenai National Forest53,909
Selway - Bitterroot (01067)Bitterroot National Forest114,953
Silver KingBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest64,289
Standard Peak Ra 1129Flathead National Forest8,262
Stony MountainBitterroot National Forest44,057
Tongue River BreaksCuster National Forest17,481
West Big HoleBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest133,563
West Of WoodbineCuster National Forest1,905
Willard Estelle #173Kootenai National Forest3,714
Nevada (11)
AreaForestAcres
Angel Peak NorthHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest12,577
Bunker HillHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest27,569
Mystic (NV)Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest5,644
Rose - Alum CreekHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest853
Rose - Davis Mdw.Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest2,361
Rose - Dutch LouieHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest363
Rose - EvansHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest4,782
Rose - NortheastHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest550
Rose - Whites CanyonHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest2,568
Ruby - Lamoille CynHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest32,771
Toiyabe RangeHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest99,225
New Hampshire (11)
AreaForestAcres
Carr MountainWhite Mountain National Forest17,110
Great Gulf Ext.White Mountain National Forest15,110
JobildunkWhite Mountain National Forest3,660
KearsargeWhite Mountain National Forest4,554
Kinsman MountainWhite Mountain National Forest8,999
Mt. Wolf - Gordon PondWhite Mountain National Forest11,846
PemigewassetWhite Mountain National Forest32,255
Pemigewasset ExtWhite Mountain National Forest15,840
Presidential - Dry River ExtWhite Mountain National Forest10,555
Sandwich RangeWhite Mountain National Forest16,797
Wild RiverWhite Mountain National Forest46,878
New Mexico (12)
AreaForestAcres
Arroyo de los FrijolesSanta Fe National Forest5,277
Candian RiverCibola National Forest7,149
Chama WS RiverSanta Fe National Forest4,168
El InviernoSanta Fe National Forest29,927
LemitasSanta Fe National Forest8,129
Nichols ReservoirSanta Fe National Forest1,518
Peloncillo (NM)Coronado National Forest43,339
RendijaSanta Fe National Forest2,176
Sierra Negra Rare II Study AreaCarson National Forest9,470
South Guadalupe MountainsLincoln National Forest20,930
Thompson PeakSanta Fe National Forest33,001
Virgin CanyonSanta Fe National Forest6,068
North Carolina (16)
AreaForestAcres
Bald MountainPisgah National Forest11,085
Balsam ConePisgah National Forest10,591
BearwallowPisgah National Forest4,113
Craggy MountainPisgah National Forest2,657
Graveyard Ridge (addition)Pisgah National Forest1,958
Harper CreekPisgah National Forest7,325
Jarrett CreekPisgah National Forest7,485
Laurel MountainPisgah National Forest5,683
Little Indian (addition)Nantahala National Forest640
Lost CovePisgah National Forest5,944
Overflow CreekNantahala National Forest3,379
Sam Knob (addition)Pisgah National Forest2,576
SnowbirdNantahala National Forest8,489
South Mills RiverPisgah National Forest8,588
Tusquitee BaldNantahala National Forest13,670
Wilson CreekPisgah National Forest4,863
North Dakota (2)
AreaForestAcres
Collar / Bennett - CottonwoodDakota Prairie Grasslands19,697
Long X DivideDakota Prairie Grasslands10,099
Oregon (24)
AreaForestAcres
Crane MountainFremont National Forest23,096
EagleMt. Hood National Forest16,841
ElkhornWillamette National Forest9,380
Hebo 1aSiuslaw National Forest13,930
HellholeUmatilla National Forest65,679
HomesteadWallowa-Whitman National Forest5,817
Hurricane CreekWallowa-Whitman National Forest1,606
Imnaha FaceWallowa-Whitman National Forest29,575
Lake ForkWallowa-Whitman National Forest21,936
LarchMt. Hood National Forest12,961
Lookout MountainOchoco National Forest14,115
Mt. JeffersonDeschutes National Forest2,282
Mt. BaileyUmpqua National Forest18,401
North PaulinaDeschutes National Forest19,670
ReservoirWallowa-Whitman National Forest13,641
Roaring RiverMt. Hood National Forest27,316
Sheep DivideWallowa-Whitman National Forest16,201
Sky Lakes AWinema National Forest3,940
Smith UmpquaSiuslaw National Forest7,622
South PaulinaDeschutes National Forest9,074
TahkenitchSiuslaw National Forest5,799
TenmileSiuslaw National Forest10,818
Twin LakesMt. Hood National Forest6,055
WoahinkSiuslaw National Forest5,309
South Dakota (1)
AreaForestAcres
Indian CreekBuffalo Gap National Grassland24,666
Tennessee (2)
AreaForestAcres
Flint Mill GapCherokee National Forest9,494
Stone MountainCherokee National Forest5,367
Texas (2)
AreaForestAcres
Big CreekNational Forests in Texas1,447
Little Lake CreekNational Forests in Texas596
Utah (33)
AreaForestAcres
0401023Ashley National Forest8,352
0401037Ashley National Forest1,166
0419020Ashley National Forest355,684
418001Uinta National Forest5,697
418016Uinta National Forest35,240
418024Uinta National Forest51,699
418025Uinta National Forest32,698
418027Uinta National Forest13,884
418029Uinta National Forest15,673
Boulder MountainWasatch-Cache National Forest8,852
Boulder Mtn. / Boulder Top / Deer LakeDixie National Forest110,690
Burch CreekWasatch-Cache National Forest6,938
Capital ReefDixie National Forest763
Flat CanyonFishlake National Forest8,663
LakesWasatch-Cache National Forest121,967
Lewis PeakWasatch-Cache National Forest11,616
Lone Peak ContiguousWasatch-Cache National Forest874
Mahogany RangeWasatch-Cache National Forest11,409
Marysvale PeakFishlake National Forest22,624
Mt. AireWasatch-Cache National Forest9,681
Mt. Logan NorthWasatch-Cache National Forest18,930
Mt. Logan SouthWasatch-Cache National Forest17,014
Mt. Logan WestWasatch-Cache National Forest5,285
Mt. NaomiWasatch-Cache National Forest41,922
Mt. OlympusWasatch-Cache National Forest9,982
NoblettsWasatch-Cache National Forest3,116
Right Hand Fork LoganWasatch-Cache National Forest15,023
South FrancisWasatch-Cache National Forest3,374
Stump CreekCaribou National Forest355
Sugar PineWasatch-Cache National Forest5,600
Temple PeakWasatch-Cache National Forest24,081
Upper South ForkWasatch-Cache National Forest16,811
WellsvilleWasatch-Cache National Forest1,717
Vermont (3)
AreaForestAcres
Bread LoafGreen Mountain and Finger Lakes National Forests1,768
Devil's Den 09083Green Mountain and Finger Lakes National Forests9,169
Griffith Lake 09084Green Mountain and Finger Lakes National Forests1,833
Virginia (24)
AreaForestAcres
Adams PeakGeorge Washington National Forest7,135
Bear CreekJefferson National Forest18,274
Beartown Addition AJefferson National Forest1,370
Brush MountainJefferson National Forest6,002
Brush Mountain EastJefferson National Forest4,916
Gum RunGeorge Washington National Forest12,620
Kelley MountainGeorge Washington National Forest7,590
Little RiverGeorge Washington National Forest27,292
Little Wilson Creek Addition BJefferson National Forest1,725
Mountain Lake Addition AJefferson National Forest1,469
Mt. PleasantGeorge Washington National Forest8,933
New London Bridge BranchJefferson National Forest844
North MountainJefferson National Forest8,377
Northern MassanuttenGeorge Washington National Forest9,444
Oak KnobGeorge Washington National Forest10,882
Oliver MountainGeorge Washington National Forest13,090
Peters Mountain Addition BJefferson National Forest2,909
Raccoon BranchJefferson National Forest4,388
Seng MountainJefferson National Forest6,428
Shawvers Run AdditionJefferson National Forest1,927
SkidmoreGeorge Washington National Forest5,641
Southern MassanuttenGeorge Washington National Forest11,985
The PriestGeorge Washington National Forest5,737
Three RidgesGeorge Washington National Forest4,745
Washington (34)
AreaForestAcres
Abercrombie - HooknoseColville National Forest33,862
Alpine Lakes Adj.Wenatchee National Forest57,104
Big Lava BedGifford Pinchot National Forest19,043
Black CanyonOkanogan National Forest9,681
Blue SlideWenatchee National Forest17,505
Boulder RiverMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest32,563
ChelanWenatchee National Forest74,650
Dark DivideGifford Pinchot National Forest52,483
Eagle RockMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest34,064
EntiatWenatchee National Forest72,617
Glacier Peak JMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest26,482
Glacier Peak KMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest47,269
Goat Rocks AdjWenatchee National Forest6,108
Granite MountainOkanogan National Forest27,428
Grassy TopIdaho Panhandle National Forests13,485
Grassy TopColville National Forest10,302
Higgins MountainMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest13,185
HoodooColville National Forest7,142
Jackson CreekColville National Forest3,003
Jefferson RidgeOlympic National Forest6,512
Liberty BellOkanogan National Forest108,495
Mt. Baker MaMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest24,847
Mt. Baker Noisy - DiobsudMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest56,039
Mt. BaldyOlympic National Forest3,557
Mt. BonaparteOkanogan National Forest10,891
Norse PeakWenatchee National Forest10,169
Pasayten RimOkanogan National Forest17,074
Rock CreekWenatchee National Forest32,239
Salmo - Priest BColville National Forest11,869
SawtoothOkanogan National Forest122,194
Slide RidgeWenatchee National Forest11,430
South QuinaultOlympic National Forest11,081
TaneumWenatchee National Forest26,140
TeanawayWenatchee National Forest72,849
West Virginia (8)
AreaForestAcres
Cranberry AdditionMonongahela National Forest11,123
Cranberry Glades Botanical AreaMonongahela National Forest785
Dolly Sods Roaring PlainMonongahela National Forest13,392
Dry River (WV)George Washington National Forest7,331
Falls Of Hills CreekMonongahela National Forest6,925
Little MountainMonongahela National Forest8,172
Middle MountainMonongahela National Forest19,020
Seneca CreekMonongahela National Forest22,287
Wyoming (23)
AreaForestAcres
Battle CreekMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest5,890
Gannett Hills - Spring CreekBridger-Teton National Forest45,462
Grayback RidgeBridger-Teton National Forest295,113
Gros Ventre MountainsBridger-Teton National Forest106,418
Horse Creek MesaBighorn National Forest77,808
Lake Alice - Commissary RidgeBridger-Teton National Forest166,707
Little SnakeMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest9,920
Middle ForkShoshone National Forest51,772
Mowry PeakMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest6,244
Munger MountainBridger-Teton National Forest12,827
Pacific Creek - Blackrock CreekBridger-Teton National Forest24,658
PalisadesTarghee National Forest1,121
Phillips RidgeBridger-Teton National Forest10,108
Salt River RangeBridger-Teton National Forest235,661
South Beartooth HighwayShoshone National Forest105,570
Spread Creek - Gros Ventre RiverBridger-Teton National Forest166,097
Sulphur CreekShoshone National Forest30,221
Teton Corridor TrailheadsBridger-Teton National Forest286
Wapiti Valley NorthShoshone National Forest18,345
Wapiti Valley SouthShoshone National Forest43,517
West Slope TetonsTarghee National Forest47,448
West Slope WindsBridger-Teton National Forest143,252
Wilderness Study AreaTarghee National Forest51,961
References (29)
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  7. DeGraph, R.M. and Rappole, J.H. 1995. Neotropical Migratory Birds. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, NY.
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  9. Harrison, C. 1978. A Field Guide to the Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of North American Birds. Collins, Cleveland, Ohio.
  10. Horn, H. S. 1968. The adaptive significance of colonial nesting in the Brewer's Blackbird. Ecology 49:682-694.
  11. Howell, S. N. G., and S. Webb. 1995. A guide to the birds of Mexico and northern Central America. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
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  14. National Geographic Society (NGS). 1983. Field guide to the birds of North America. National Geographic Society, Washington, DC.
  15. Oberholser, H.C. 1974. The bird life of Texas. 2 vols. Univ. of Texas Press, Austin.
  16. Parker III, T. A., D. F. Stotz, and J. W. Fitzpatrick. 1996. Ecological and distributional databases for neotropical birds. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
  17. Peterson, R.T. 1980b. A field guide to the birds of eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
  18. Peterson, R.T. 1990b. A field guide to western birds. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
  19. Raffaele, H., J. Wiley, O. Garrido, A. Keith, and J. Raffaele. 1998. A guide to the birds of the West Indies. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. 511 pp.
  20. Ridgely, R. S. 2002. Distribution maps of South American birds. Unpublished.
  21. Ridgely, R. S. and J. A. Gwynne, Jr. 1989. A Guide to the Birds of Panama. 2nd edition. Princeton University Press, Princeton, USA.
  22. Scott, S. L. 1983. Field guide to the birds of North America. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.
  23. Stiles, F. G. and A. F. Skutch. 1989. A guide to the birds of Costa Rica. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA. 511 pp.
  24. Tarvin, K. A., and G. E. Woolfenden. 1999. Blue Jay (<i>Cyanocitta cristata</i>). No. 469 IN A. Poole and F. Gill, editors. The birds of North America. The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. 32pp.
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  26. Thompson, F. R., III. 1994. Temporal and spatial patterns of breeding brown-headed cowbirds in the midwestern United States. Auk 111:979-990.
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  29. Zook, J. L. 2002. Distribution maps of the birds of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Unpublished.