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Home/Species/ Townsend's Solitaire

Myadestes townsendi

(Audubon, 1838)

Townsend's Solitaire

G5Secure Found in 348 roadless areas NatureServe Explorer →
G5SecureGlobal Rank
Least concernIUCN
LowThreat Impact
Identity
Unique IDELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106360
Element CodeABPBJ16010
Record TypeSPECIES
ClassificationSpecies
Classification StatusStandard
Name CategoryVertebrate Animal
IUCNLeast concern
Endemicoccurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumCraniata
ClassAves
OrderPasseriformes
FamilyTurdidae
GenusMyadestes
Other Common Names
Clarín Norteño (ES) Solitaire de Townsend (FR) Townsend's solitaire (EN)
Concept Reference
American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1998. Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in The Auk]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.
Conservation Status
Rank MethodExpertise without calculation
Review Date2016-04-09
Change Date1996-12-03
Edition Date2009-03-19
Edition AuthorsHammerson, G.
Threat ImpactLow
Range Extent>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)
Number of Occurrences81 to >300
Rank Reasons
Large range in western North America; large population size; no evidence of significant decline or major threats.
Range Extent Comments
Breeding range extends from eastern Alaska and Yukon south in mountains through western Canada and the western United States (south to southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and east to Montana, northeastern Wyoming, southwestern South Dakota, northwestern Nebraska) and in the mountains of Mexico from Chuhuahua to Zacatecas (Bowen 1997, AOU 1998). The primary winter range extends from southwestern Canada, Montana, and South Dakota, east to central Texas, south to northern Baja California, Sonora, and the southern limits of the breeding range in Mexico (AOU 1998); solitaires sometimes appear in areas to the east of this range.
Occurrences Comments
This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations).
Threat Impact Comments
No major threats have been identified.
Ecology & Habitat

Habitat

Breeding habitat includes montane and subalpine coniferous forest and woodland, rocky cliffs, and adjacent brushy areas and thickets. Nests are on the ground in rock crevices, at tree bases, in ledges of earth banks, etc. During the nonbreeding season, habitats include open woodland (e.g., pinyon-juniper), chaparral, desert, and riparian woodland (AOU 1983).

Ecology

Usually seen singly, in pairs, or small family groups.

Reproduction

Clutch size is 3-5 (usually 4).
Terrestrial Habitats
Forest/WoodlandForest - HardwoodForest - ConiferForest - MixedForest EdgeWoodland - HardwoodWoodland - ConiferWoodland - MixedShrubland/chaparralDesertCliff
Other Nations (2)
CanadaN5B,NUN
ProvinceRankNative
British ColumbiaS5BYes
SaskatchewanS3NYes
AlbertaS4B,SUNYes
QuebecSNAYes
Northwest TerritoriesS4Yes
Yukon TerritoryS5BYes
OntarioSNAYes
United StatesN5
ProvinceRankNative
AlaskaS4BYes
MontanaS5Yes
ArizonaS3Yes
UtahS4Yes
NebraskaS2Yes
MinnesotaSNRNYes
WashingtonS4BYes
ColoradoS5Yes
Navajo NationS3B,S4NYes
OklahomaS2NYes
South DakotaS4B,S4NYes
North DakotaSNAYes
IdahoS5Yes
IowaS3NYes
TexasS3NYes
OregonS4Yes
NevadaS5Yes
MichiganSNRNYes
WyomingS5BYes
KansasSNAYes
New MexicoS4B,S5NYes
CaliforniaSNRYes
Roadless Areas (348)
Alaska (2)
AreaForestAcres
RedoubtTongass National Forest68,347
ResurrectionChugach National Forest224,615
Arizona (11)
AreaForestAcres
Black CanyonPrescott National Forest10,683
BoulderTonto National Forest40,359
Butterfly Roadless AreaCoronado National Forest42,296
Catalina St. Pk. Roadless AreaCoronado National Forest951
ChiricahuaCoronado National Forest76,876
Lime CreekTonto National Forest42,568
Lower San FranciscoApache-Sitgreaves National Forests59,310
MazatzalTonto National Forest16,942
Red PointKaibab National Forest7,139
TumacacoriCoronado National Forest44,594
Walker MountainCoconino National Forest6,382
California (109)
AreaForestAcres
AgnewSequoia National Forest9,561
AntimonyLos Padres National Forest40,911
Arroyo SecoAngeles National Forest4,703
Birch CreekInyo National Forest28,816
Black ButteMendocino National Forest15,461
Black CanyonInyo National Forest32,421
Blue Creek Rare ISix Rivers National Forest12,134
Bonanza KingShasta-Trinity National Forest16,402
Bucks LakePlumas National Forest680
Callahan FlowModoc National Forest6,618
CamuesaLos Padres National Forest8,209
Caples CreekEldorado National Forest17,854
Carson - IcebergStanislaus National Forest56,430
Castle Crags AShasta-Trinity National Forest113
Castle Crags BShasta-Trinity National Forest1,619
ChannellSequoia National Forest45,429
ChicoSequoia National Forest39,836
Chips CreekLassen National Forest29,089
ColdwaterCleveland National Forest8,402
Coyote NorthInyo National Forest11,932
Crystal CreekSan Bernardino National Forest6,783
Cucamonga AAngeles National Forest1,249
Cucamonga BSan Bernardino National Forest11,933
Cutca ValleyCleveland National Forest14,530
DardanellesEldorado National Forest8,110
De La GuerraLos Padres National Forest5,418
Deep CreekSan Bernardino National Forest23,869
Devil GulchSierra National Forest30,490
Dinkey LakesSierra National Forest34,171
DomeStanislaus National Forest11,085
Domeland Add.Sequoia National Forest3,046
Duncan CanyonTahoe National Forest8,621
EagleStanislaus National Forest16,116
East YubaTahoe National Forest17,968
Glass MountainInyo National Forest52,867
Granite ChiefTahoe National Forest6,546
Granite PeakSan Bernardino National Forest450
GrindstoneMendocino National Forest26,031
Hall Natural AreaInyo National Forest5,236
Heart LakeLassen National Forest9,349
Heartbreak RidgeSan Bernardino National Forest4,455
Hoover - Green Ck NoHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest7,155
Hoover - Mt.olsenHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest624
Hoover - NorthHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest1,574
Hoover - Virginia LksHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest5,050
Horse Creek RidgeSan Bernardino National Forest8,969
Horse Mdw.Inyo National Forest5,687
HortonInyo National Forest5,717
Iceberg - Mill CreekHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest26,988
Jennie LakeSequoia National Forest2,388
KangarooKlamath National Forest40,617
Kings RiverSierra National Forest52,999
LavasModoc National Forest25,864
Log Cabin SaddlebagInyo National Forest15,165
Middle ForkPlumas National Forest29,278
Mill PeakSan Bernardino National Forest7,884
Mt. OlsenInyo National Forest2,161
Mt. RebaStanislaus National Forest3,869
Mt. Shasta AShasta-Trinity National Forest676
Mt. Shasta BShasta-Trinity National Forest2,809
Nevahbe RidgeInyo National Forest302
NightStanislaus National Forest3,173
North Fork American RiverTahoe National Forest38,495
North Fork Middle Fork American RiverTahoe National Forest11,245
North LakeInyo National Forest2,406
ParsnipModoc National Forest8,485
Pilot CreekSix Rivers National Forest9,192
Pleasant ViewAngeles National Forest26,395
PortugueseKlamath National Forest18,915
PowleyModoc National Forest6,268
PyramidEldorado National Forest24,347
Raymond PeakEldorado National Forest2,518
Raymond PeakStanislaus National Forest3,646
Raywood Flat BSan Bernardino National Forest11,373
RinconSequoia National Forest54,610
Rock Creek WestInyo National Forest3,626
Rouse HillSan Bernardino National Forest13,745
RussianKlamath National Forest21,771
San Gabriel AddAngeles National Forest2,527
San JoaquinSierra National Forest22,474
Sawmill - BadlandsLos Padres National Forest51,362
Sheep MountainAngeles National Forest21,098
SherwinInyo National Forest3,140
Sill HillCleveland National Forest5,294
Silver HillHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest4,423
SiskiyouKlamath National Forest54,039
Siskiyou BSix Rivers National Forest18,871
Slate Mtn.Sequoia National Forest12,299
SnoozerKlamath National Forest23,414
SoldierModoc National Forest10,102
SoliderSix Rivers National Forest14,918
South SierraInyo National Forest41,853
South SierraSequoia National Forest8,008
Strawberry PeakAngeles National Forest7,245
SugarloafSan Bernardino National Forest8,206
Table Mtn.Inyo National Forest4,215
Timbered CraterLassen National Forest4,096
TinemahaInyo National Forest27,060
TrabucoCleveland National Forest23,341
Tragedy - Elephants BackEldorado National Forest20,866
Weaver BallyShasta-Trinity National Forest829
West GirardShasta-Trinity National Forest37,516
West YubaTahoe National Forest16,059
WestforkAngeles National Forest4,407
Wheeler RidgeInyo National Forest15,744
Wild Horse Mtn. (CA)Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest28,822
Wonoga Pk.Inyo National Forest11,272
WoodpeckerSequoia National Forest11,936
WoolstaffSequoia National Forest41,445
Colorado (7)
AreaForestAcres
Bristol HeadRio Grande NF46,087
Comanche Peak Adjacent AreaArapaho & Roosevelt NFs44,158
Dome PeakRoutt NF35,716
HermosaSan Juan NF148,103
Long ParkRoutt NF42,100
Red TableWhite River NF39,122
San MiguelSan Juan NF64,263
Idaho (5)
AreaForestAcres
Borah PeakSalmon-Challis National Forest130,463
HoodooNez Perce-Clearwater National Forest153,868
PalisadesCaribou-Targhee National Forest122,002
Pioneer MountainsSawtooth National Forest119,563
Pioneer MountainsSalmon-Challis National Forest172,460
Montana (31)
AreaForestAcres
Bear - Marshall - Scapegoat - SwanHelena National Forest51,360
Bear - Marshall - Scapegoat - SwanLolo National Forest118,485
Bear - Marshall - Scapegoat - SwanLewis and Clark National Forest344,022
Big Snowy Mountains WsaLewis and Clark National Forest88,003
Bmss Ra 1485Flathead National Forest334,275
BridgerGallatin National Forest45,059
Burnt MountainCuster National Forest10,698
Cabin Creek Wildlife Management Area OcdGallatin National Forest35,048
Chico PeakGallatin National Forest10,744
Crazy MountainGallatin National Forest82,093
Cube Iron - SilcoxLolo National Forest36,998
East PioneerBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest145,082
Gallatin FringeGallatin National Forest51,571
Hyalite - Porcupine - Buffalo Horn Wilderness Study AreaGallatin National Forest143,991
Line Creek PlateauCuster National Forest24,825
LionheadGallatin National Forest33,549
Lost Water CanyonCuster National Forest9,251
MadisonGallatin National Forest127,859
Meadow Creek - Upper North ForkLolo National Forest6,906
Middle Mtn. / Tobacco RootsBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest96,487
Mt. BushnellLolo National Forest41,798
Mt. Gmt Area HCuster National Forest1,335
North AbsarokaGallatin National Forest159,075
North AbsarokaCuster National Forest21,063
QuiggLolo National Forest67,267
Red Lodge Creek HellroaringCuster National Forest17,210
Reservation DivideLolo National Forest16,908
Selway - Bitterroot (01067)Bitterroot National Forest114,953
Sheep Mountain - StatelineLolo National Forest37,844
Silver KingBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest64,289
West PioneerBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest248,631
Nevada (18)
AreaForestAcres
Angel Peak NorthHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest12,577
Arc Dome - CarversHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest3,846
Bald Mtn.Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest41,598
Charleston - CarpenterHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest17,828
Charleston - Macks CynHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest11,378
Jobs Peak (NV)Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest1,342
Moriah - Hendrys Ck.Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest2,345
Rose - EvansHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest4,782
Rose - GalenaHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest3,711
Rose - VerdiHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest1,155
Rose - Whites CanyonHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest2,568
Ruby - Lamoille CynHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest32,771
Snake - Can Young NHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest336
Snake - ChokecherryHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest30,845
Snake - Lincoln CynHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest314
Snake - MurphyHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest27,064
Snake - Pole CynHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest766
South SchellHumboldt-Toiyabe National Forest125,614
New Mexico (36)
AreaForestAcres
Alamo CanyonSanta Fe National Forest8,639
Black CanyonSanta Fe National Forest1,922
Bull CanyonCarson National Forest11,512
Candian RiverCibola National Forest7,149
Capitan MountainsLincoln National Forest14,069
Chama WS RiverSanta Fe National Forest4,168
Columbine - Hondo Wilderness Study AreaCarson National Forest43,739
Contiguous To Black & Aldo Leopold WildernessGila National Forest111,883
Contiguous To Gila Wilderness & Primitive AreaGila National Forest79,049
Devils CreekGila National Forest89,916
El InviernoSanta Fe National Forest29,927
GallinasSanta Fe National Forest13,208
Gila BoxGila National Forest23,759
Holy GhostSanta Fe National Forest2,352
Juan de Gabaldon GrantSanta Fe National Forest8,023
Last Chance CanyonLincoln National Forest8,934
LemitasSanta Fe National Forest8,129
Little TesuqueSanta Fe National Forest815
Meadow CreekGila National Forest34,167
Nichols ReservoirSanta Fe National Forest1,518
Ortega PeakLincoln National Forest11,545
Pacheco CanyonSanta Fe National Forest1,012
PecosCarson National Forest13,436
Pecos WS RiverSanta Fe National Forest5,396
Peloncillo (NM)Coronado National Forest43,339
RendijaSanta Fe National Forest2,176
Rio MedioSanta Fe National Forest2,844
Ryan HillCibola National Forest34,201
Sawyers PeakGila National Forest59,743
Sierra Negra Rare II Study AreaCarson National Forest9,470
South Guadalupe MountainsLincoln National Forest20,930
Taylor CreekGila National Forest16,639
Tesuque CreekSanta Fe National Forest810
Thompson PeakSanta Fe National Forest33,001
Virgin CanyonSanta Fe National Forest6,068
West Face Sacramento MountainsLincoln National Forest41,176
North Dakota (1)
AreaForestAcres
Long X DivideDakota Prairie Grasslands10,099
Oregon (36)
AreaForestAcres
Badger CreekMt. Hood National Forest847
Boulder ParkWallowa-Whitman National Forest12,141
Brattain ButteFremont National Forest5,959
Charlton ButteWillamette National Forest3,031
Dunns BluffWallowa-Whitman National Forest718
Echo MountainWillamette National Forest8,098
FairviewUmpqua National Forest7,417
French Pete (a)Willamette National Forest1,668
French Pete (b)Willamette National Forest1,186
Hebo 1aSiuslaw National Forest13,930
HellholeUmatilla National Forest65,679
HomesteadWallowa-Whitman National Forest5,817
Hurricane CreekWallowa-Whitman National Forest1,606
Imnaha FaceWallowa-Whitman National Forest29,575
LakeMt. Hood National Forest1,327
Lake ForkWallowa-Whitman National Forest21,936
LarchMt. Hood National Forest12,961
Lookout MountainOchoco National Forest14,115
Mclennon MountainWillamette National Forest8,085
Middle SantiamWillamette National Forest7,316
Mill Creek Watershed (OR)Umatilla National Forest7,820
Mt. JeffersonDeschutes National Forest2,282
Mt. BaileyUmpqua National Forest18,401
Mt. Hood AdditionsMt. Hood National Forest13,061
North KalmiopsisSiskiyou National Forests91,560
North PaulinaDeschutes National Forest19,670
ReservoirWallowa-Whitman National Forest13,641
Roaring RiverMt. Hood National Forest27,316
Sheep DivideWallowa-Whitman National Forest16,201
Sky Lakes AWinema National Forest3,940
Snake RiverWallowa-Whitman National Forest31,229
South PaulinaDeschutes National Forest9,074
Twin MountainWallowa-Whitman National Forest58,533
Upper Catherine CreekWallowa-Whitman National Forest6,446
W - T ThreeUmatilla National Forest1,705
Waldo - LakeWillamette National Forest2,993
Utah (40)
AreaForestAcres
0401005Ashley National Forest38,930
418012Uinta National Forest25,758
418016Uinta National Forest35,240
418024Uinta National Forest51,699
418025Uinta National Forest32,698
418026Uinta National Forest14,038
418027Uinta National Forest13,884
418028Uinta National Forest34,002
418029Uinta National Forest15,673
418040Uinta National Forest1,702
Boulder MountainWasatch-Cache National Forest8,852
Boulger - Black CanyonManti-Lasal National Forest23,286
Cove CreekFishlake National Forest25,555
Dairy ForkManti-Lasal National Forest30,222
FishhookDixie National Forest12,959
HancockDixie National Forest9,809
High Uintas (UT)Wasatch-Cache National Forest102,398
HogsbackWasatch-Cache National Forest7,936
LakesWasatch-Cache National Forest121,967
Lewis PeakWasatch-Cache National Forest11,616
Lone Peak ContiguousWasatch-Cache National Forest874
Mahogany RangeWasatch-Cache National Forest11,409
Mollens HollowWasatch-Cache National Forest17,690
Mt. AireWasatch-Cache National Forest9,681
Mt. Logan NorthWasatch-Cache National Forest18,930
Mt. Logan SouthWasatch-Cache National Forest17,014
Mt. Logan WestWasatch-Cache National Forest5,285
Mt. NaomiWasatch-Cache National Forest41,922
Mt. OlympusWasatch-Cache National Forest9,982
Mt. Um Plateau - Mt TerrillFishlake National Forest17,490
Muddy Creek - Nelson Mt.Manti-Lasal National Forest59,034
NoblettsWasatch-Cache National Forest3,116
Oak CreekFishlake National Forest54,053
Pine Valley MountainsDixie National Forest57,673
Red Canyon NorthDixie National Forest9,973
South FrancisWasatch-Cache National Forest3,374
Stansbury MountainsWasatch-Cache National Forest39,696
Twin PeaksWasatch-Cache National Forest6,157
WellsvilleWasatch-Cache National Forest1,717
White PineWasatch-Cache National Forest1,942
Washington (23)
AreaForestAcres
Black CanyonOkanogan National Forest9,681
Blue SlideWenatchee National Forest17,505
Boulder RiverMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest32,563
Dark DivideGifford Pinchot National Forest52,483
Devils GulchWenatchee National Forest24,419
Glacier Peak JMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest26,482
Granite MountainOkanogan National Forest27,428
Jefferson RidgeOlympic National Forest6,512
Liberty BellOkanogan National Forest108,495
Long SwampOkanogan National Forest66,344
ManastashWenatchee National Forest11,155
Mill Creek Watershed (WA)Umatilla National Forest16,747
Mt. Baker MaMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest24,847
Mt. Baker Noisy - DiobsudMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest56,039
Mt. Baker NorthMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest16,873
Mt. BaldyOlympic National Forest3,557
Mt. BonaparteOkanogan National Forest10,891
Norse PeakWenatchee National Forest10,169
Pasayten RimOkanogan National Forest17,074
QuartzWenatchee National Forest8,550
SawtoothOkanogan National Forest122,194
TaneumWenatchee National Forest26,140
TeanawayWenatchee National Forest72,849
Wyoming (29)
AreaForestAcres
Beartooth Proposed WildernessShoshone National Forest16,837
Cloud Peak ContiguousBighorn National Forest113,757
Devils CanyonBighorn National Forest37,416
French CreekMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest5,928
Gros Ventre MountainsBridger-Teton National Forest106,418
Horse Creek MesaBighorn National Forest77,808
Laramie PeakMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest28,608
Libby FlatsMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest11,107
Little BighornBighorn National Forest133,949
Middle ForkShoshone National Forest51,772
Middle ForkMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest13,238
PalisadesTarghee National Forest1,121
Platte River AdditionMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest7,962
ReefShoshone National Forest16,817
Savage Run AdditionMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest2,368
Sheep MountainMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest17,626
Snowy RangeMedicine Bow-Routt National Forest29,660
South Beartooth HighwayShoshone National Forest105,570
South ForkShoshone National Forest64,903
Spread Creek - Gros Ventre RiverBridger-Teton National Forest166,097
Sulphur CreekShoshone National Forest30,221
Teton Corridor TrailheadsBridger-Teton National Forest286
Walker PrairieBighorn National Forest62,434
Wapiti Valley NorthShoshone National Forest18,345
Wapiti Valley SouthShoshone National Forest43,517
West Slope TetonsTarghee National Forest47,448
West Slope WindsBridger-Teton National Forest143,252
Wilderness Study AreaTarghee National Forest51,961
Windy MountainShoshone National Forest31,283
References (21)
  1. American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1983. Check-list of North American Birds, 6th edition. Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas. 877 pp.
  2. American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1998. Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in <i>The Auk</i>]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.
  3. Balda, R. P., and G. C. Bateman. 1971. Flocking and annual cycle of the piñon jay, <i>Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus</i>. Condor 73:287-302.
  4. BirdLife International. 2004b. Threatened birds of the world 2004. CD ROM. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.
  5. Bowen, R. V. 1997. Townsend's solitaire (<i>Myadestes </i><i>townsendi</i>), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/269.
  6. Godfrey, W.E. 1966. The birds of Canada. National Museums of Canada. Ottawa. 428 pp.
  7. Harrison, C. 1978. A Field Guide to the Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of North American Birds. Collins, Cleveland, Ohio.
  8. Horn, H. S. 1968. The adaptive significance of colonial nesting in the Brewer's Blackbird. Ecology 49:682-694.
  9. Howell, S. N. G., and S. Webb. 1995. A guide to the birds of Mexico and northern Central America. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
  10. Ligon, J. D. 1971. Late summer-autumnal breeding of the piñon jay in New Mexico. Condor 73:147-153.
  11. Moore, W. S., and R. A. Dolbeer. 1989. The use of banding recovery data to estimate dispersal rates and gene flow in avian species: case studies in the Red-winged Blackbird and Common Grackle. Condor 91:242-253.
  12. Oberholser, H.C. 1974. The bird life of Texas. 2 vols. Univ. of Texas Press, Austin.
  13. Parker III, T. A., D. F. Stotz, and J. W. Fitzpatrick. 1996. Ecological and distributional databases for neotropical birds. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
  14. Peterson, R.T. 1990b. A field guide to western birds. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
  15. Poole, A. F. and F. B. Gill. 1992. The birds of North America. The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. and The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA.
  16. Rich, T. D., C. J. Beardmore, H. Berlanga, P. J. Blancher, M.S.W. Bradstreet, G. S. Butcher, D. W. Demarest, E. H. Dunn, W. C. Hunter, E. E. Iñigo-Elias, A. M. Martell, A. O. Panjabi, D. N. Pashley, K. V. Rosenberg, C. M. Rustay, J. S. Wendt, T. C. Will. 2004. Partners in Flight North American landbird conservation plan. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Ithaca, NY. Online. Available: <u><http://www.partnersinflight.org/cont_plan/></u>
  17. Tarvin, K. A., and G. E. Woolfenden. 1999. Blue Jay (<i>Cyanocitta cristata</i>). No. 469 IN A. Poole and F. Gill, editors. The birds of North America. The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. 32pp.
  18. Terres, J. K. 1980. The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American birds. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
  19. Thompson, F. R., III. 1994. Temporal and spatial patterns of breeding brown-headed cowbirds in the midwestern United States. Auk 111:979-990.
  20. Williams, L. 1952b. Breeding behavior of the Brewer blackbird. Condor 54:3-47.
  21. Willson, M. F. 1966. Breeding ecology of the Yellow-headed Blackbird. Ecological Monographs 36:51-77.