Passerculus sandwichensis

A highly variable species (or may comprise multiple species) that generally has yellow lores and often has a yellowish eyebrow; pale crown stripe (indistinct in southern California and often in juveniles); dark to buffy whisker stripe; upperparts usually streaked (not so in some parts of southern California); short notched tail; streaked sides and breast (sometimes with a central spot); whitish belly and undertail; pale pinkish or straw colored legs and feet (most of range) (NGS 1983, Ridgway 1901). The numerous subspecies vary in size, coloration, bill size, and extent of streaking (NGS 1983). Overall length is 11-14 cm, mass about 15-20 g. When flushed, runs through the grass or makes short, quick, erratic flights.

VOCALIZATIONS: song is an insectlike "tip tip tip seeee saaaaay." Calls include a slight "tseep" or "tsip."

Differs from song sparrow (MELOSPIZA MELODIA) by usually having a yellowish eyebrow stripe, whitish crown stripe, short notched tail (vs. long and rounded), and pinker legs (Peterson 1990). Lacks the white outer tail feathers of the vesper sparrow (POOECETES GRAMINEUS).

BREEDING: Prefers habitat with short to intermediate vegetation height, intermediate vegetation density, and a well developed litter layer. These preferred habitats cover a wide range of vegetation types, including alpine and arctic tundra, coastal salt marshes, sedge bogs, grassy meadows, and native prairie (Wheelwright and Rising 1993).

In North American grasslands, occupies tallgrass prairie, idle and lightly grazed mixed-grass prairie, shortgrass, wet meadow zones surrounding prairie wetlands, alfalfa (MEDICAGO SATIVA)/brome (BROMUS spp.) hayfields, native and tame dense nesting cover (DNC), Conservation Reserve Program lands, weedy crop and stubble fields, retired cropland, and wheat fields (Stewart 1975; Salt and Salt 1976; Renken 1983; Dale 1993; Hartley 1994; Johnson and Igl 1995; Patterson and Best 1996; Prescott and Murphy 1995, 1996). Although occasionally breeds in cropland, is more abundant in idle native, DNC, and Conservation Reserve Program lands (Hartley 1994, Johnson and Igl 1995, Patterson and Best 1996). In Illinois, found in mixed and pure stands of hay, pastures, and idle grasslands, but reached highest densities in pastures and idle grasslands (Graber and Graber 1963). In Wisconsin and Ohio, abundance was positively correlated to percent herbaceous vegetation cover (Sample 1989, Swanson et al. 1997). In North Dakota and Saskatchewan, abundance was positively correlated with percent grass cover (Renken 1983, Renken and Dinsmore 1987, Sutter 1996). However, at a less arid site in Saskatchewan, abundance was negatively correlated to percent grass cover (Sutter 1996).

Most abundant on Conservation Reserve Program fields with high percent grass and low percent legume cover in the northern Great Plains (Johnson and Schwartz 1993). In Oregon and Nevada, Rotenberry and Wiens (1980) found a positive correlation between abundance and percent forb cover. In Wisconsin, abundance was negatively correlated to maximum vegetation height and vegetation height-density (Sample 1989). Wiens (1969, 1973) stated that low, dense vegetation was required for nest sites; grass-dominated habitats with little forb cover are preferred (Wiens 1969, 1973; Welsh 1975; Knight 1989; Vickery et al. 1992). In Wisconsin, avoided habitats with tall, dense vegetation and nested primarily in managed or disturbed habitats such as pastures and hayfields (Sample 1989). In Michigan, nested in hayfields of clover (MELILOTIS and TRIFOLIUM spp.), alfalfa, brome (BROMUS spp.), and timothy (PHLEUM PRATENSE), and in clumps of grass near cow pies in an overgrazed pasture (George 1952). In Maine, nesting birds in areas of mainly forb and shrub cover experienced lower reproductive success than those nesting in predominantly grass cover (Vickery et al. 1992). In Quebec, vegetation height did not differ between nest sites and random points, but successful nests were surrounded by taller vegetation than unsuccessful nests (Bedard and LaPointe 1984).

Avoids areas with extensive tree cover (Wheelwright and Rising 1993). Wiens (1969) noted that most breeding territories were located in the center of grassland habitats, away from cultivated fields and fence lines, and Sample (1989) found a negative correlation between abundance and percent shrub cover. In North Dakota, were found only on shrubless transects (Arnold and Higgins 1986). In Wyoming sagebrush steppe, were observed only on burned and herbicide treated areas with fewer shrubs and more grass and forb cover (Kerley and Anderson 1995). In West Virginia, nesting territory often included small trees, shrubs, and fence posts (Shields 1935). In Saskatchewan, nested in or near clumps of sparse western snowberry (SYMPHORICARPOS OCCIDENTALIS) shrubs (Lein 1968). Although total woody cover in habitats used for nesting was low (< 1 percent), Sample (1989) reported that the birds often used small trees and shrubs (< 2 m tall), fence posts and wire, and tall herbaceous stems as song perches.

NON-BREEDING: In migration, open fields, roadsides, dunes, coastal marshes, edges of ponds, and rarely in open woodlands (Wheelwright and Rising 1993). In winter, cultivated fields, pastures, golf courses, roadsides, dunes, and salt marshes (Wheelwright and Rising 1993).

Territories are small, ranging from 0.05 to 1.25 hectares (George 1952, Lein 1968, Wiens 1969, Potter 1972, Welsh 1975, Piehler 1987, Wheelwright and Rising 1993).

Arrive on the breeding grounds between late March and early May, and begin nesting in May (George 1952, Baird 1968, Lein 1968, Maher 1973, Welsh 1975, Bedard and LaPointe 1984b, Wheelwright and Rising 1993). In North Dakota, breed from late May through late July, with peak breeding occurring from early June to mid-July (Stewart 1975). If the first nesting attempt fails, will renest, and many females produce a second clutch after a successful first nest (George 1952, Lein 1968, Taber 1968, Wiens 1969, Weatherhead 1979, Wheelwright and Rising 1993). In northern areas, may be limited to a single brood (Maher 1973, Weatherhead 1979).

In Saskatchewan, departed from breeding territories in early August, but remained in the area, foraging in weedy fields, along road edges, and along the margins of lakes and sloughs (Lein 1968). Fall migration occurs in mid- to late September (George 1952, Maher 1973).

In the Canadian Maritimes, male and female are philopatric (Bedard and LaPointe 1984b, Wheelwright and Rising 1993). Philopatry to breeding territories in Newfoundland is high; 95 percent of surviving males and 90 percent of surviving females return to within 40 meters of territories from a previous year (Wheelwright and Rising 1993). There is no information on philopatry in the Great Plains, and philopatry of grassland birds in the Great Plains may be low (Wiens 1974, Johnson 1996). Polygyny is common in populations residing in the Canadian Maritimes, but populations in other portions of the species range are generally monogamous (Welsh 1975, Wheelwright and Rising 1993).