Roadless Areas
Home/Species/ Chestnut-backed Chickadee

Poecile rufescens

(Townsend, 1837)

Chestnut-backed Chickadee

G5Secure Found in 344 roadless areas NatureServe Explorer →
G5SecureGlobal Rank
Least concernIUCN
Chestnut-backed Chickadee (Poecile rufescens rufescens). © Michael Long; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library.
© Michael Long; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library
Chestnut-backed Chickadee (Poecile rufescens rufescens). © Joshua Covill; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library.
© Joshua Covill; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library
Chestnut-backed Chickadee (Poecile rufescens rufescens). © Mason Maron; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library.
© Mason Maron; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library
Chestnut-backed Chickadee (Poecile rufescens rufescens). © Zak Pohlen; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library.
© Zak Pohlen; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library
Chestnut-backed Chickadee (Poecile rufescens rufescens). © Alex Leeder; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library.
© Alex Leeder; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library
Chestnut-backed Chickadee (Poecile rufescens rufescens). © Ian Davies; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library.
© Ian Davies; Cornell Lab of Ornithology | Macaulay Library
Chestnut-backed Chickadee (Poecile rufescens rufescens). Photo by U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Public Domain (U.S. Government Work), via ECOS.
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, https://www.usa.gov/government-works
Identity
Unique IDELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.104851
Element CodeABPAW01070
Record TypeSPECIES
ClassificationSpecies
Classification StatusStandard
Name CategoryVertebrate Animal
IUCNLeast concern
Endemicoccurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumCraniata
ClassAves
OrderPasseriformes
FamilyParidae
GenusPoecile
Other Common Names
chestnut-backed chickadee (EN) Mésange à dos marron (FR)
Concept Reference
American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1998. Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in The Auk]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.
Taxonomic Comments
Formerly in genus Parus; transferred to Poecile by AOU (1997). May constitute a superspecies with P. cinctus and P. hudsonicus (AOU 1998). Phylogenetic analyses of mtDNA genetic data indicate that North American chickadees comprise two clades, hudsonicus-rufescens-sclateri versus carolinensis-atricapillus-gambeli (Gill et al. 1993).
Conservation Status
Rank MethodExpertise without calculation
Review Date2016-04-09
Change Date1996-12-02
Range Extent Comments
Resident from south-central and southeastern Alaska to western Alberta, south to southern California and northwestern Montana. Wanders irregularly inland after breeding season. Over the past several decades, range has expanded in the San Francisco Bay area and in the Sierra Nevada; no longer appears to be increasing in the Sierra Nevada, but some populations in the San Francisco Bay area apparently are still increasing (Brennan and Morrison 1991). Planted stands of Monterey pine may have contributed to the range expansion in the San Francisco Bay region (Kleintjes and Dahlsten 1994).
Ecology & Habitat

Habitat

Coniferous and mixed forest, primarily in humid regions, less frequently in pine forest, oak woodland, pine-oak association, and thickets (AOU 1983). Strongly associated with Douglas-fir in most areas (Brennan and Morrison 1991). In California, planted stands of Monterey pine provided significant foraging habitat during the breeding season (Kleintjes and Dahlsten 1994). On British Columbia mainland, characteristic of moist coniferous forests; on Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Islands also in deciduous and mixed forests, suburban and rural residential areas (Campbell et al. 1997).

Nests in tree cavities; natural, dug by pair, or old woodpecker hole, usually less than 3 m above ground.

Ecology

Often forms flocks of 4-20 individuals during nonbreeding season, often in loose association with other species (juncos, kinglets, nuthatches, etc.). Recent range expansion in the Sierra Nevada was not accompanied by declines in mountain chickadee numbers (Brennan and Morrison 1991).

Reproduction

Clutch size is 5-9 (commonly 6-7). Young are tended by both parents. May nest in loose colonies.
Terrestrial Habitats
Forest - HardwoodForest - ConiferForest - MixedWoodland - HardwoodWoodland - ConiferWoodland - MixedSuburban/orchard
Palustrine Habitats
Riparian
Other Nations (2)
CanadaN5
ProvinceRankNative
British ColumbiaS5Yes
United StatesN5
ProvinceRankNative
WashingtonS5Yes
IdahoS5Yes
MontanaS4Yes
CaliforniaSNRYes
AlaskaS5Yes
OregonS5Yes
Roadless Areas (344)
Alaska (64)
AreaForestAcres
Behm IslandsTongass National Forest4,777
Bering LakeChugach National Forest965,076
Boston BarChugach National Forest53,617
ChichagofTongass National Forest555,858
Chilkat-West Lynn CanalTongass National Forest199,772
Chugach-12Chugach National Forest8,116
Chugach-13Chugach National Forest13,337
Chugach-14Chugach National Forest184
Chugach-15Chugach National Forest56
Chugach-16Chugach National Forest312
Chugach-17Chugach National Forest19,954
Chugach-18Chugach National Forest26
Chugach-20Chugach National Forest132
Chugach-21Chugach National Forest634
Chugach-22Chugach National Forest801
College FiordChugach National Forest1,130,818
College FiordChugach National Forest1,130,818
Copper River WetlandsChugach National Forest85,972
CrystalTongass National Forest18,972
Douglas IslandTongass National Forest28,065
Exit Glacier DonutChugach National Forest126
Fidalgo-GravinaChugach National Forest257,968
Fidalgo-GravinaChugach National Forest257,968
Game CreekTongass National Forest54,469
GravinaTongass National Forest37,381
Hoonah SoundTongass National Forest79,764
HyderTongass National Forest121,723
Johnson PassChugach National Forest152,508
Juneau UrbanTongass National Forest101,581
Juneau-Skagway IcefieldTongass National Forest1,187,268
KartaTongass National Forest52,117
Kenai LakeChugach National Forest213,172
Kenai MountainsChugach National Forest306,600
Kenai MountainsChugach National Forest306,600
KosciuskoTongass National Forest64,134
LindenbergTongass National Forest25,855
MadanTongass National Forest68,553
Mansfield PeninsulaTongass National Forest54,991
Middle KruzofTongass National Forest14,724
MontagueChugach National Forest204,875
Nellie JuanChugach National Forest713,697
North BaranofTongass National Forest314,089
North KruzofTongass National Forest33,146
North RevillaTongass National Forest215,430
North WrangellTongass National Forest8,091
Port AlexanderTongass National Forest120,681
Prince William Sound Is.Chugach National Forest118,698
Prince William Sound Is.Chugach National Forest118,698
RedoubtTongass National Forest68,347
ResurrectionChugach National Forest224,615
RevillaTongass National Forest29,298
RhineTongass National Forest23,010
Roaded DonutChugach National Forest968
Roaded DonutChugach National Forest968
Sheridan GlacierChugach National Forest224,683
Sitka UrbanTongass National Forest112,003
South KruzofTongass National Forest55,193
Taku-SnettishamTongass National Forest664,928
Tenakee RidgeTongass National Forest20,527
Twenty MileChugach National Forest198,775
Upper SitukTongass National Forest16,789
Upper SitukTongass National Forest16,789
Yakutat ForelandsTongass National Forest323,648
Yakutat ForelandsTongass National Forest323,648
California (73)
AreaForestAcres
BackboneShasta-Trinity National Forest11,466
Bear MountainLos Padres National Forest913
Big Butte ShinboneMendocino National Forest4,265
Black ButteMendocino National Forest15,461
Black ButteLos Padres National Forest5,116
Blue Creek Rare ISix Rivers National Forest12,134
Board CampSix Rivers National Forest4,527
Bonanza KingShasta-Trinity National Forest16,402
BoulderKlamath National Forest435
Castle Crags AShasta-Trinity National Forest113
Castle Crags BShasta-Trinity National Forest1,619
ChanchelullaShasta-Trinity National Forest3,915
ChinquapinShasta-Trinity National Forest22,040
Cow CreekSix Rivers National Forest1,271
Cow CreekShasta-Trinity National Forest22,627
CrapoKlamath National Forest1,487
Devils RockShasta-Trinity National Forest16,209
EagleShasta-Trinity National Forest6,553
East GirardShasta-Trinity National Forest27,894
Elk CreekMendocino National Forest23,182
Fisher Gulch BShasta-Trinity National Forest4,791
Granite PeakShasta-Trinity National Forest122
GriderKlamath National Forest10,647
GrindstoneMendocino National Forest26,031
Indian CreekKlamath National Forest5,011
Jacobs (fs)Klamath National Forest577
JohnsonKlamath National Forest10,652
KangarooKlamath National Forest40,617
KellySix Rivers National Forest5,195
Lake EleanorShasta-Trinity National Forest397
Monkey CreekSix Rivers National Forest9,017
Mt. EddyShasta-Trinity National Forest7,232
Mt. Shasta AShasta-Trinity National Forest676
Mt. Shasta BShasta-Trinity National Forest2,809
MuseKlamath National Forest238
North Fork SmithSix Rivers National Forest37,898
Orleans Mtn.Klamath National Forest49,090
Orleans Mtn. BSix Rivers National Forest17,183
Orleans Mtn. CSix Rivers National Forest15,589
PacksaddleSix Rivers National Forest3,862
PacksaddleSix Rivers National Forest3,862
PantherShasta-Trinity National Forest12,016
PattisonShasta-Trinity National Forest29,299
Pilot CreekSix Rivers National Forest9,192
PortugueseKlamath National Forest18,915
Redcap Addition Rare ISix Rivers National Forest489
RussianKlamath National Forest21,771
Salt CreekSix Rivers National Forest9,505
Salt GulchShasta-Trinity National Forest6,511
ShacklefordKlamath National Forest1,679
Ship MountainSix Rivers National Forest11,936
SiskiyouKlamath National Forest54,039
Siskiyou ASix Rivers National Forest1,017
Siskiyou BSix Rivers National Forest18,871
Skeleton GladeMendocino National Forest9,237
Slide CreekSix Rivers National Forest11,458
SnoozerKlamath National Forest23,414
Snow MountainMendocino National Forest14,457
SoliderSix Rivers National Forest14,918
South ForkShasta-Trinity National Forest16,786
South ForkShasta-Trinity National Forest16,786
ThatcherMendocino National Forest16,652
Thomes CreekMendocino National Forest16,616
Tom MartinKlamath National Forest9,031
Ukonom CreekKlamath National Forest4,621
UnderwoodSix Rivers National Forest6,591
UnderwoodShasta-Trinity National Forest3,046
WaterhouseStanislaus National Forest4,394
Weaver BallyShasta-Trinity National Forest829
Wells MountainShasta-Trinity National Forest5,919
West BeegumShasta-Trinity National Forest5,198
West GirardShasta-Trinity National Forest37,516
Wilderness ContiguousMendocino National Forest3,606
Idaho (4)
AreaForestAcres
Bear CreekCaribou-Targhee National Forest118,582
Bighorn - WeitasNez Perce-Clearwater National Forest254,845
HoodooNez Perce-Clearwater National Forest153,868
North Lochsa SlopeNez Perce-Clearwater National Forest117,662
Montana (13)
AreaForestAcres
Alexander Creek #696Kootenai National Forest6,719
Buckhorn Ridge (MT)Kootenai National Forest34,716
Cabinet Face East #671Kootenai National Forest50,326
Cherry PeakLolo National Forest37,862
Cube Iron - SilcoxLolo National Forest36,998
Evans GulchLolo National Forest8,059
Flagstaff Mountain #690Kootenai National Forest11,114
Mt. BushnellLolo National Forest41,798
Scotchman Peaks (MT)Kootenai National Forest53,909
Selway - Bitterroot (01067)Bitterroot National Forest114,953
Thompson Seton #483Kootenai National Forest29,379
Thompson Seton RA 1483Flathead National Forest52,235
Willard Estelle #173Kootenai National Forest3,714
Oregon (112)
AreaForestAcres
Badger CreekMt. Hood National Forest847
BearwallowsDeschutes National Forest7,317
Beaver CreekWallowa-Whitman National Forest12,973
Bend WatershedDeschutes National Forest14,829
Bitter LickUmpqua National Forest179
Boulder ParkWallowa-Whitman National Forest12,141
Brown Mt.Winema National Forest3,117
Bull Of The WoodsMt. Hood National Forest8,843
Bull Of The WoodsWillamette National Forest53
Bulldog RockWillamette National Forest559
Bulldog RockUmpqua National Forest6,056
Calf - Copeland CreekUmpqua National Forest15,696
Canton CreekUmpqua National Forest6,721
Castle Rock AppendageUmpqua National Forest4,649
CharltonDeschutes National Forest7,047
Charlton ButteWillamette National Forest3,031
Chucksney MountainWillamette National Forest15,369
CornpatchWillamette National Forest7,346
Cougar BluffUmpqua National Forest5,574
Cougar BluffUmpqua National Forest5,574
DoneganUmpqua National Forest5,914
Drift CreekSiuslaw National Forest6,333
EagleMt. Hood National Forest16,841
Echo MountainWillamette National Forest8,098
ElkhornWillamette National Forest9,380
FairviewUmpqua National Forest7,417
Fish Creek AppendageUmpqua National Forest1,377
French Pete (a)Willamette National Forest1,668
French Pete (b)Willamette National Forest1,186
Frog CampWillamette National Forest491
Gold CreekWillamette National Forest1,364
Gordon MeadowsWillamette National Forest9,463
Gordon MeadowsWillamette National Forest9,463
Hardesty MountainWillamette National Forest3,754
Hardesty MountainUmpqua National Forest2,597
Hebo 1aSiuslaw National Forest13,930
Hebo 1aSiuslaw National Forest13,930
HellholeUmatilla National Forest65,679
HuckleberryWillamette National Forest793
Hurricane CreekWallowa-Whitman National Forest1,606
Jackson Creek AppendageUmpqua National Forest4,673
LakeMt. Hood National Forest1,327
LarchMt. Hood National Forest12,961
LarchMt. Hood National Forest12,961
LastUmpqua National Forest7,666
Limpy RockUmpqua National Forest6,782
Little Eagle MeadowsWallowa-Whitman National Forest6,984
Little SheepWallowa-Whitman National Forest5,238
Lonesome Meadow AppendageUmpqua National Forest930
Maiden PeakWillamette National Forest9,627
Maiden PeakDeschutes National Forest26,432
Maiden PeakDeschutes National Forest26,432
Maiden PeakWillamette National Forest9,627
Mclennon MountainWillamette National Forest8,085
Mclennon MountainWillamette National Forest8,085
Medicine Creek AppendageUmpqua National Forest745
Menagerie (rooster Rock)Willamette National Forest374
Menagerie (rooster Rock)Willamette National Forest374
Middle SantiamWillamette National Forest7,316
Mill Creek Watershed (OR)Umatilla National Forest7,820
Moose LakeWillamette National Forest5,013
Mosquito CreekWillamette National Forest335
Mt. JeffersonDeschutes National Forest2,282
Mt. JeffersonDeschutes National Forest2,282
Mt. BaileyUmpqua National Forest18,401
Mt. HagenWillamette National Forest6,406
Mt. Hood AdditionsMt. Hood National Forest13,061
Mt. Hood AdditionsMt. Hood National Forest13,061
Mt. Jefferson AdditionMt. Hood National Forest162
Mt. ThielsenWinema National Forest1,153
N. BoundaryWinema National Forest769
North KalmiopsisSiskiyou National Forests91,560
OdessaWinema National Forest146
OlallieMt. Hood National Forest7,607
Opal CreekWillamette National Forest5,417
Rainbow FallsWillamette National Forest65
Roaring RiverWillamette National Forest2,128
Roaring RiverMt. Hood National Forest27,316
Rolling Grounds AppendageUmpqua National Forest1,987
Salmon - HuckleberryMt. Hood National Forest17,570
Salmon - HuckleberryMt. Hood National Forest17,570
Shasta CostaSiskiyou National Forests14,420
SherwoodUmpqua National Forest2,449
Skimmerhorn AppendageUmpqua National Forest1,820
Sky Lakes AWinema National Forest3,940
Sky Lakes BWinema National Forest9,615
Smith UmpquaSiuslaw National Forest7,622
South KalmiopsisSiskiyou National Forests104,477
TahkenitchSiuslaw National Forest5,799
TahkenitchSiuslaw National Forest5,799
TenmileSiuslaw National Forest10,818
TenmileSiuslaw National Forest10,818
Thirsty Creek AppendageUmpqua National Forest2,255
Twin LakesMt. Hood National Forest6,055
Twin LakesMt. Hood National Forest6,055
Umpqua SpitSiuslaw National Forest2,090
Upper Catherine CreekWallowa-Whitman National Forest6,446
W. BoundaryWinema National Forest2,345
WaldoDeschutes National Forest4,973
Waldo - FujiWillamette National Forest15,273
Waldo - FujiWillamette National Forest15,273
Waldo - KochWillamette National Forest245
Waldo - LakeWillamette National Forest2,993
Waldo - Many PrariesWillamette National Forest2,585
Waldo - MoolackWillamette National Forest1,183
Waldo - Salmon CreekWillamette National Forest3,195
West - South BachelorDeschutes National Forest25,994
Williams CreekUmpqua National Forest5,844
Wind CreekMt. Hood National Forest5,438
Wind CreekMt. Hood National Forest5,438
WoahinkSiuslaw National Forest5,309
WoahinkSiuslaw National Forest5,309
Texas (1)
AreaForestAcres
Big CreekNational Forests in Texas1,447
Washington (77)
AreaForestAcres
Abercrombie - HooknoseColville National Forest33,862
Angry MountainGifford Pinchot National Forest445
BackboneGifford Pinchot National Forest1,201
Bear CreekGifford Pinchot National Forest7,980
Big Lava BedGifford Pinchot National Forest19,043
Big Lava BedGifford Pinchot National Forest19,043
Blue LakeGifford Pinchot National Forest11,359
Blue SlideWenatchee National Forest17,505
Boulder RiverMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest32,563
BourbonGifford Pinchot National Forest4,512
BourbonGifford Pinchot National Forest4,512
Carlton RidgeGifford Pinchot National Forest2,190
ChambersGifford Pinchot National Forest2,006
Coal Creek BluffGifford Pinchot National Forest1,164
CortrightGifford Pinchot National Forest3,462
Dark DivideGifford Pinchot National Forest52,483
Deer CreekGifford Pinchot National Forest882
Dixon MountainGifford Pinchot National Forest6,339
Eagle RockMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest34,064
EntiatWenatchee National Forest72,617
Glacier Peak KMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest47,269
Goat Rocks AdjWenatchee National Forest6,108
Gotchen CreekGifford Pinchot National Forest7,518
Grassy TopColville National Forest10,302
Grassy TopIdaho Panhandle National Forests13,485
Green MountainOlympic National Forest4,617
Green MountainOlympic National Forest4,617
Harvey CreekColville National Forest10,140
Heather LakeWenatchee National Forest10,628
HorseshoeGifford Pinchot National Forest7,579
HorseshoeGifford Pinchot National Forest7,579
Jefferson RidgeOlympic National Forest6,512
Jupiter RidgeOlympic National Forest10,148
Laughing WaterGifford Pinchot National Forest1,167
Liberty BellOkanogan National Forest108,495
LightningOlympic National Forest7,179
LightningOlympic National Forest7,179
Madison CreekOlympic National Forest1,223
ManastashWenatchee National Forest11,155
McdonaldOlympic National Forest501
Mill Creek Watershed (WA)Umatilla National Forest16,747
Moonlight DomeOlympic National Forest4,919
Mt. Baker MaMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest24,847
Mt. Baker Noisy - DiobsudMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest56,039
Mt. Baker NorthMt Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest16,873
Mt. BaldyOlympic National Forest3,557
Mt. ZionOlympic National Forest3,544
Nason RidgeWenatchee National Forest19,329
Norse PeakWenatchee National Forest10,169
Norse PeakWenatchee National Forest10,169
Packwood LakeGifford Pinchot National Forest1,084
PompeyGifford Pinchot National Forest23,985
PompeyGifford Pinchot National Forest23,985
QuartzWenatchee National Forest8,550
QuilceneOlympic National Forest18,656
Red LakeGifford Pinchot National Forest2,162
Red MountainGifford Pinchot National Forest2,992
Red MountainGifford Pinchot National Forest2,992
Rock CreekWenatchee National Forest32,239
Rugged RidgeOlympic National Forest4,358
Silver StarGifford Pinchot National Forest7,779
SiouxonGifford Pinchot National Forest12,773
South MidwayGifford Pinchot National Forest2,384
South MidwayGifford Pinchot National Forest2,384
South QuinaultOlympic National Forest11,081
South QuinaultOlympic National Forest11,081
SpanglerUmatilla National Forest5,936
Spencer RidgeGifford Pinchot National Forest5,880
Stormy Mtn.Wenatchee National Forest32,612
StrawberryGifford Pinchot National Forest5,244
TaneumWenatchee National Forest26,140
TumwaterGifford Pinchot National Forest8,676
Upper SkokomishOlympic National Forest9,311
West AdamsGifford Pinchot National Forest2,238
West AdamsGifford Pinchot National Forest2,238
White PassGifford Pinchot National Forest1,145
WobblyGifford Pinchot National Forest6,335
References (19)
  1. American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1983. Check-list of North American Birds, 6th edition. Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas. 877 pp.
  2. American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1998. Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in <i>The Auk</i>]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.
  3. Balda, R. P., and G. C. Bateman. 1971. Flocking and annual cycle of the piñon jay, <i>Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus</i>. Condor 73:287-302.
  4. Brennan, L. A., and M. L. Morrison. 1991. Long-term trends of chickadee populations in western North America. Condor 93:130-137.
  5. Campbell, R. W., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser, M. C. E. McNall, and G. E. J. Smith. 1997. The birds of British Columbia. Volume 3. Passerines: flycatchers through vireos. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver. 693 pages.
  6. Gill, F. B., A. M. Mostrom, and A. L. Mack. 1993. Speciation in North American chickadees: I. Patterns of mtDNA genetic divergence. Evolution 47:195-212.
  7. Godfrey, W.E. 1966. The birds of Canada. National Museums of Canada. Ottawa. 428 pp.
  8. Harrison, C. 1978. A Field Guide to the Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of North American Birds. Collins, Cleveland, Ohio.
  9. Harrison, H. H. 1979. A field guide to western birds' nests. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 279 pp.
  10. Horn, H. S. 1968. The adaptive significance of colonial nesting in the Brewer's Blackbird. Ecology 49:682-694.
  11. Kleintjes, P. K., and D. L. Dahlsten. 1994. Foraging behavior and nestling diet of chestnut-backed chickadees in Monterey pine. Condor 96:647-653.
  12. Ligon, J. D. 1971. Late summer-autumnal breeding of the piñon jay in New Mexico. Condor 73:147-153.
  13. Mitchell, W. A. 1988. Songbird nest boxes. Section 5.1.8, US Army Corps of Engineers Wildlife Resources Management Manual. Tech. Rep. EL-88-19. Waterways Expt. Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi. 48 pp.
  14. Moore, W. S., and R. A. Dolbeer. 1989. The use of banding recovery data to estimate dispersal rates and gene flow in avian species: case studies in the Red-winged Blackbird and Common Grackle. Condor 91:242-253.
  15. Tarvin, K. A., and G. E. Woolfenden. 1999. Blue Jay (<i>Cyanocitta cristata</i>). No. 469 IN A. Poole and F. Gill, editors. The birds of North America. The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. 32pp.
  16. Terres, J. K. 1980. The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American birds. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
  17. Thompson, F. R., III. 1994. Temporal and spatial patterns of breeding brown-headed cowbirds in the midwestern United States. Auk 111:979-990.
  18. Williams, L. 1952b. Breeding behavior of the Brewer blackbird. Condor 54:3-47.
  19. Willson, M. F. 1966. Breeding ecology of the Yellow-headed Blackbird. Ecological Monographs 36:51-77.